🎩Nineteenth Century Art Unit 10 – Sculpture in the 19th Century

Key Artists and Movements

• Auguste Rodin pioneered modern sculpture with expressive, naturalistic works (The Thinker, The Kiss)
• Camille Claudel, Rodin's student and collaborator, created powerful sculptures of the female form (The Waltz, The Mature Age)
  • Claudel's career was tragically cut short due to mental illness and societal pressures
• The Neoclassical movement drew inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman art, emphasizing idealized beauty and heroic themes
  • Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen were leading Neoclassical sculptors
• Romanticism rejected Neoclassical ideals in favor of emotion, individuality, and nature (François Rude's La Marseillaise)
• The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood sought to revive the sincerity and spirituality of medieval and early Renaissance art
  • Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were key Pre-Raphaelite sculptors
• Realism aimed to depict the world truthfully, often focusing on everyday subjects and social issues (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux's Ugolino and His Sons)
• Impressionist sculpture captured fleeting moments and the play of light on surfaces (Edgar Degas' Little Dancer Aged Fourteen)

Technological Advancements

• The Industrial Revolution introduced new tools and machinery that transformed the sculptural process
  • Steam-powered saws, drills, and polishers allowed for faster, more precise work
• The invention of the pointing machine enabled sculptors to accurately transfer measurements from a small model to a larger block of stone
• Advances in metallurgy and foundry techniques made it possible to create larger, more complex bronze sculptures
  • The lost-wax casting method was refined, allowing for greater detail and intricacy
• The development of artificial stone, such as Coade stone, provided a durable, cost-effective alternative to natural stone
• Photography and the rise of mass media helped to popularize and disseminate sculptural works to a wider audience
• The advent of electric lighting in galleries and museums changed how sculptures were displayed and perceived
• New modes of transportation, such as railroads and steamships, facilitated the global exchange of ideas, materials, and artworks

Materials and Techniques

• Marble remained a favored material for its beauty, durability, and classical associations
  • Carrara marble from Italy was particularly prized for its purity and translucence
• Bronze casting allowed for greater freedom of form and movement in sculpture
  • The lost-wax method involved creating a wax model, encasing it in a mold, melting the wax, and pouring molten bronze into the cavity
• Stone carving techniques, such as pointing and direct carving, were used to create both realistic and abstract forms
• Plaster was widely used for creating models, casts, and reproductions of sculptures
  • Plaster casts of famous works helped to educate artists and the public about sculpture from around the world
• Terracotta, a type of clay, was used for sketches, models, and finished works, particularly in smaller scales
• Wood carving experienced a revival, with artists exploring its unique grain, texture, and color
• Mixed media sculptures incorporated a variety of materials, such as metal, glass, and found objects, to create new forms and textures

Themes and Subjects

• Mythological and allegorical figures remained popular subjects, often used to convey moral or political messages (The Triumph of the Republic by Jules Dalou)
• Portraits and busts captured the likenesses of notable individuals, from royalty to artists and intellectuals (Auguste Rodin's bust of Victor Hugo)
  • The rise of the middle class led to an increased demand for personal and family portraits in sculpture
• Historical and contemporary events, such as wars, revolutions, and social movements, inspired sculptural works (The Lion of Belfort by Frédéric Bartholdi)
• The human form, both idealized and realistic, remained a central focus of sculptural exploration
  • Nude figures were used to express a range of emotions and ideas, from sensuality to spirituality
• Animals, both domestic and wild, were depicted in sculpture for their symbolic, decorative, and naturalistic qualities (Antoine-Louis Barye's animal sculptures)
• The natural world, including landscapes, plants, and geological formations, inspired sculptors to create works that celebrated the beauty and power of nature
• Abstract and non-representational forms began to emerge, challenging traditional notions of sculpture and paving the way for modern art (Auguste Rodin's The Walking Man)

Cultural and Historical Context

• The 19th century was marked by political upheaval, including revolutions, wars, and the rise of nationalism, which influenced sculptural themes and commissions
  • The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars inspired heroic and patriotic sculptures (The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 by François Rude)
• The growth of cities and the emergence of a wealthy middle class created new markets and patrons for sculpture
  • Public monuments and civic sculptures became increasingly common, often commemorating important events or individuals
• Colonialism and the expansion of European empires exposed artists to a wider range of cultural influences and artistic traditions
  • The appropriation and exoticization of non-Western art and artifacts influenced sculptural styles and subjects
• The rise of industrialization and mass production challenged traditional notions of craftsmanship and artistic value
  • Some sculptors embraced new technologies and materials, while others sought to preserve traditional techniques and aesthetics
• The changing roles of women in society and the arts led to greater opportunities for female sculptors, although they still faced significant barriers and discrimination
• The emergence of photography and the rise of mass media changed how sculptures were documented, reproduced, and disseminated to a wider audience

Notable Works

• The Gates of Hell by Auguste Rodin, a monumental bronze portal featuring over 200 figures inspired by Dante's Inferno
  • The Thinker, one of Rodin's most famous sculptures, originated as a figure in The Gates of Hell
• The Statue of Liberty by Frédéric Bartholdi, a colossal neoclassical sculpture gifted by France to the United States, symbolizing freedom and democracy
• The Burghers of Calais by Auguste Rodin, a powerful and emotionally charged depiction of the sacrifices made by six citizens during the Hundred Years' War
• The Veiled Virgin by Giovanni Strazza, a marble sculpture showcasing the artist's skill in creating the illusion of translucent fabric
• The Age of Bronze by Auguste Rodin, a life-sized male nude that caused controversy for its realism and alleged use of a live model
• The Lion of Lucerne by Bertel Thorvaldsen, a poignant memorial to the Swiss Guards who died defending the Tuileries Palace during the French Revolution
• The Pietà by William Wetmore Story, a moving portrayal of the Virgin Mary cradling the dead body of Jesus Christ, exemplifying the Neoclassical style

Impact on Modern Sculpture

• Auguste Rodin's expressive, naturalistic style and innovative techniques paved the way for modern sculpture
  • Rodin's emphasis on the fragment, the unfinished, and the process of creation influenced later artists such as Constantin Brâncuși and Alberto Giacometti
• The use of new materials and technologies, such as metal casting and artificial stone, expanded the possibilities of sculptural form and expression
• The emergence of abstract and non-representational sculpture in the late 19th century challenged traditional notions of art and laid the groundwork for 20th-century avant-garde movements
  • Artists such as Medardo Rosso and Adolf von Hildebrand experimented with form, space, and perception in their sculptures
• The increasing importance of public monuments and civic sculpture in the 19th century set the stage for the proliferation of public art in the 20th century
• The rise of individualism and the cult of the artist in the 19th century contributed to the development of more personal, expressive styles in modern sculpture
• The 19th-century interest in non-Western and prehistoric art influenced the primitivist and tribal art movements of the early 20th century
• The changing relationship between sculpture and architecture in the 19th century, with sculptures often designed as integral parts of buildings, anticipated the integration of art and architecture in modern times

Critical Reception and Legacy

• 19th-century sculpture was often met with controversy and debate, as artists challenged traditional norms and pushed the boundaries of acceptable subject matter and style
  • Auguste Rodin's works, such as The Age of Bronze and The Kiss, caused scandals due to their realism and sensuality
• The rise of art criticism and the proliferation of exhibitions and salons helped to shape public opinion and taste in sculpture
  • Critics such as Charles Baudelaire and Théophile Gautier played important roles in championing or challenging sculptural works and movements
• The 19th century saw the emergence of new institutions and spaces dedicated to sculpture, such as the Musée de Sculpture Comparée in Paris and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London
• The legacy of 19th-century sculpture can be seen in the continued importance of public monuments and memorials in contemporary society
  • The debate over the removal or recontextualization of controversial sculptures, such as Confederate monuments, reflects ongoing tensions and changing attitudes towards historical figures and events
• The 19th-century emphasis on the expressive potential of the human form and the exploration of emotion and psychology in sculpture continues to influence contemporary artists
• The technical and material innovations of the 19th century, from bronze casting to the use of unconventional materials, have expanded the possibilities of sculptural expression in the modern era
• The 19th-century sculptors' engagement with social, political, and cultural issues, such as class, gender, and colonialism, resonates with contemporary concerns and debates in the art world