7.4 Mixed-race and urban Native identities

Mixed-race and urban Native identities reflect complex experiences of navigating multiple cultural worlds. These individuals often face unique challenges in maintaining connections to their Native heritage while living in diverse urban environments.

Historical factors like colonization and relocation programs have shaped these identities. Today, mixed-race and urban Natives continue to grapple with issues of belonging, cultural preservation, and combating stereotypes while forging new forms of community and activism.

Mixed-race Native identities

• Mixed-race Native identities encompass individuals with both Native American and non-Native heritage, resulting in unique experiences and challenges in navigating multiple cultural identities
• Historical context plays a significant role in shaping mixed-race Native identities, as interracial marriages and relationships have occurred throughout the history of colonization and settlement in North America
• The concept of blood quantum, which quantifies Native American ancestry based on percentages, has been used as a controversial method for determining tribal membership and eligibility for certain benefits, often overshadowing the importance of cultural identity and connection to Native communities

Challenges of mixed heritage

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• Individuals with mixed Native heritage may face discrimination and exclusion from both Native and non-Native communities, leading to feelings of isolation and disconnection
• Mixed-race Natives may struggle with reconciling different cultural values, traditions, and expectations, as they navigate the complexities of their multiple identities
• Stereotypes and misconceptions about mixed-race Natives can lead to questioning of their authenticity and legitimacy as members of Native communities
• Mixed-race Natives may face challenges in accessing cultural knowledge, language, and ceremonies, particularly if they have been disconnected from their Native heritage due to historical trauma or family circumstances

Navigating multiple cultural identities

• Mixed-race Natives often develop strategies for navigating their multiple cultural identities, such as embracing a fluid or hybrid identity that incorporates elements of both Native and non-Native cultures
• Some mixed-race Natives may choose to prioritize their Native identity and actively engage in cultural practices, ceremonies, and community involvement, while others may emphasize their non-Native heritage or identify as multicultural
• Navigating multiple cultural identities can involve ongoing processes of self-discovery, learning, and negotiation, as individuals seek to find a sense of belonging and authenticity in their identities
• Mixed-race Natives may serve as cultural brokers or bridges between Native and non-Native communities, using their unique perspectives and experiences to promote understanding, dialogue, and collaboration

Historical context of mixed-race Natives

• The history of colonization, forced assimilation, and interracial relationships has shaped the experiences and identities of mixed-race Natives over time
• Policies such as the Indian Removal Act, boarding schools, and urban relocation programs have contributed to the displacement and disconnection of Native peoples from their traditional lands, cultures, and communities, impacting the formation of mixed-race Native identities
• Historical figures such as Pocahontas and Sacagawea, who had mixed Native and European ancestry, have been romanticized and mythologized in popular culture, often obscuring the complex realities of mixed-race Native experiences
• The legacy of historical trauma, including the loss of land, language, and cultural practices, continues to impact mixed-race Natives and their families, shaping their sense of identity and connection to Native communities

Blood quantum vs cultural identity

• Blood quantum, a system that quantifies Native American ancestry based on percentages, has been used by the U.S. government and some tribes as a means of determining tribal membership and eligibility for certain benefits, such as healthcare, education, and housing
• Critics argue that blood quantum is a colonial construct that undermines the importance of cultural identity, kinship, and community connection in defining Native identity, and can lead to the exclusion of mixed-race Natives who may have strong cultural ties but do not meet arbitrary blood quantum thresholds
• Some tribes have moved away from blood quantum and adopted alternative criteria for membership, such as lineal descent or cultural participation, recognizing the limitations and potential harms of relying solely on biological ancestry
• The debate over blood quantum versus cultural identity highlights the ongoing struggles of mixed-race Natives to assert their belonging and authenticity within Native communities and the broader society, and the need for more inclusive and nuanced understandings of Native identity

Urban Native experiences

• Urban Native experiences encompass the lives and challenges of Native Americans living in cities, often as a result of historical relocation programs and ongoing urbanization trends
• Urban Natives face unique challenges in maintaining cultural connections, navigating urban poverty and racism, and building a sense of community and identity in diverse and often disconnected urban environments
• The experiences of urban Natives highlight the ongoing impacts of colonization, assimilation policies, and systemic inequalities on Native communities, as well as the resilience and creativity of Native peoples in adapting to new contexts and forging new forms of identity and belonging

Relocation programs and urbanization

• In the mid-20th century, the U.S. government implemented relocation programs, such as the Indian Relocation Act of 1956, which encouraged Native Americans to leave reservations and move to cities for employment and education opportunities
• Relocation programs were part of a broader policy of termination and assimilation, which sought to end the trust relationship between the federal government and Native tribes and to integrate Native peoples into mainstream American society
• Urbanization has continued to shape Native experiences, as more than 70% of Native Americans now live in urban areas, often in search of better economic opportunities, healthcare, and education
• The transition to urban life has brought both opportunities and challenges for Native peoples, as they navigate new social, cultural, and economic landscapes while striving to maintain their cultural identities and connections to their tribal communities

Maintaining cultural connections in cities

• Urban Natives often face challenges in maintaining cultural connections and practicing traditional ways of life in urban environments, where they may be disconnected from their ancestral lands, languages, and ceremonial practices
• Some urban Natives have formed cultural centers, community organizations, and urban Indian health centers to provide spaces for cultural expression, social support, and access to traditional healing practices
• Urban Native artists, writers, and activists have played important roles in preserving and promoting Native cultures in cities, through initiatives such as murals, performances, and cultural events
• The use of social media and online platforms has also enabled urban Natives to connect with each other and with their tribal communities, sharing cultural knowledge, stories, and resources across geographic distances

Challenges of urban poverty and racism

• Urban Natives often face disproportionate rates of poverty, unemployment, and housing insecurity, as a result of historical and ongoing systemic inequalities and discrimination
• Urban Natives may experience racism and stereotyping from non-Native populations, who may hold misconceptions about Native cultures and identities or view them as relics of the past
• The intersection of race, class, and gender can create additional challenges for urban Native women, who may face higher rates of violence, sexual assault, and trafficking in cities
• Urban Native youth may struggle with issues of identity, belonging, and cultural disconnection, as they navigate the pressures of assimilation and the challenges of maintaining their Native heritage in urban environments

Pan-Indian identity and community building

• In response to the challenges of urban life, some Native Americans have developed a sense of pan-Indian identity, which emphasizes shared experiences and solidarity across tribal lines
• Pan-Indian organizations, such as the National Urban Indian Family Coalition and the American Indian Community House, have emerged to advocate for the rights and well-being of urban Natives and to provide a sense of community and support
• Urban Native community events, such as powwows, festivals, and cultural celebrations, provide opportunities for Native peoples to come together, share their cultures, and build a sense of belonging and pride in their identities
• The concept of pan-Indian identity has also been critiqued by some Native scholars and activists, who argue that it can obscure the diversity and specificity of tribal cultures and histories, and may not fully address the unique challenges faced by different urban Native communities

Representations in literature

• Representations of mixed-race and urban Native characters in literature offer important insights into the experiences, challenges, and identities of these communities, and can help to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about Native peoples
• Native authors have used literature as a means of exploring themes of identity, belonging, and displacement, and of asserting the complexity and diversity of Native experiences in both reservation and urban contexts
• The intersection of race, class, and gender is often a central focus in literature by and about mixed-race and urban Natives, highlighting the ways in which these identities shape individuals' lives and opportunities
• Contemporary Native literature is increasingly diverse and inclusive, celebrating the voices and perspectives of mixed-race and urban Natives, and challenging narrow or essentialist understandings of Native identity

Mixed-race and urban Native characters

• Mixed-race Native characters in literature often grapple with questions of identity, belonging, and authenticity, as they navigate the complexities of their multiple cultural heritages and the expectations of both Native and non-Native communities
• Examples of mixed-race Native characters in literature include:
  • Ephanie in Louise Erdrich's "The Antelope Wife", who struggles with her mixed Ojibwe and white heritage and the legacy of historical trauma in her family
  • Jude in Tommy Orange's "There There", who explores his urban Native identity and the challenges of reconnecting with his tribal community
• Urban Native characters in literature often confront the realities of poverty, racism, and cultural disconnection in cities, while also finding ways to build community, resist assimilation, and assert their Native identities
• Examples of urban Native characters in literature include:
  • The characters in Sherman Alexie's short story collection "The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven", who navigate the challenges and contradictions of life on the Spokane Indian Reservation and in nearby cities
  • The protagonists in Tommy Orange's "There There", who come together at a powwow in Oakland, California, each grappling with their own struggles and searches for belonging as urban Natives

Themes of identity, belonging, and displacement

• Themes of identity, belonging, and displacement are central to literature by and about mixed-race and urban Natives, reflecting the ongoing impacts of colonization, assimilation policies, and cultural dislocation on Native communities
• Mixed-race Native characters often struggle with questions of authenticity and legitimacy, as they seek to define their identities in relation to both Native and non-Native cultures and communities
• Urban Native characters may experience a sense of displacement and disconnection from their tribal communities and traditional ways of life, while also finding new forms of community and identity in cities
• The search for belonging and the assertion of Native identity in the face of cultural erasure and assimilation pressures are recurring themes in mixed-race and urban Native literature

Challenging stereotypes and misconceptions

• Literature by and about mixed-race and urban Natives plays an important role in challenging stereotypes and misconceptions about Native peoples, which often portray them as monolithic, ahistorical, or vanishing
• Mixed-race Native characters challenge binary understandings of race and identity, and assert the complexity and diversity of Native experiences and identities
• Urban Native characters challenge the stereotype of Native peoples as exclusively rural or reservation-based, and highlight the ongoing presence and resilience of Native communities in cities
• Native authors use literature to assert the contemporaneity and vitality of Native cultures, and to resist the erasure or romanticization of Native peoples in mainstream narratives

Intersection of race, class, and gender

• The intersection of race, class, and gender is a central focus in literature by and about mixed-race and urban Natives, reflecting the ways in which these identities shape individuals' experiences, opportunities, and challenges
• Mixed-race Native characters may face unique forms of discrimination and marginalization based on their racial ambiguity or their perceived lack of authenticity as Native peoples
• Urban Native characters often confront the realities of poverty, unemployment, and housing insecurity in cities, which disproportionately impact Native communities and are shaped by ongoing histories of colonization and systemic inequality
• Native women characters may face particular challenges and vulnerabilities in urban environments, including higher rates of violence, sexual assault, and trafficking, as well as the pressures of gendered expectations and roles within their communities
• Native authors use literature to explore the ways in which race, class, and gender intersect and influence Native identities and experiences, and to assert the agency and resilience of Native peoples in the face of multiple forms of oppression and marginalization

Cultural and political activism

• Mixed-race and urban Natives have played important roles in cultural and political activism, both historically and in contemporary contexts, advocating for Native rights, cultural preservation, and social justice
• The Red Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which asserted Native pride and sovereignty, included many mixed-race and urban Native leaders and activists, who brought attention to the challenges and struggles of Native communities in cities and beyond
• Mixed-race Natives have often served as cultural brokers or intermediaries between Native and non-Native communities, using their unique experiences and perspectives to promote understanding, dialogue, and collaboration
• Urban Native organizations and initiatives have emerged to address the specific needs and concerns of Native peoples in cities, providing cultural programming, social services, and political advocacy

Red Power movement and Native pride

• The Red Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s was a period of Native American activism and cultural resurgence, which asserted Native pride, sovereignty, and self-determination in the face of ongoing colonization and assimilation pressures
• Mixed-race and urban Native leaders played important roles in the Red Power movement, bringing attention to the challenges and struggles of Native communities in cities and beyond
• Examples of mixed-race and urban Native activists in the Red Power movement include:
  • Richard Oakes, a Mohawk activist who led the occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 to assert Native land rights and bring attention to the challenges faced by urban Natives
  • LaDonna Harris, a Comanche activist who founded Americans for Indian Opportunity to promote Native leadership and advocacy in urban and reservation contexts
• The Red Power movement emphasized the importance of cultural pride and the reclaiming of Native identities, languages, and traditions, and inspired a new generation of Native activists and leaders

Reclaiming Native identities in urban spaces

• Mixed-race and urban Natives have played important roles in reclaiming and asserting Native identities in urban spaces, through cultural programming, community building, and political activism
• Urban Native organizations, such as the American Indian Community House in New York City and the Native American Youth and Family Center in Portland, Oregon, provide spaces for cultural expression, social support, and community building for Native peoples in cities
• Urban Native artists, writers, and performers have used their work to assert the presence and vitality of Native cultures in cities, and to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about Native identities
• The reclaiming of Native identities in urban spaces has also involved the revitalization of Native languages, the practice of traditional arts and crafts, and the celebration of Native holidays and ceremonies

Mixed-race Natives as cultural brokers

• Mixed-race Natives have often served as cultural brokers or intermediaries between Native and non-Native communities, using their unique experiences and perspectives to promote understanding, dialogue, and collaboration
• Examples of mixed-race Natives who have served as cultural brokers include:
  • Charles Eastman, a Dakota physician and author who advocated for Native rights and cultural preservation in the early 20th century, and who worked to bridge the divide between Native and non-Native societies
  • Louise Erdrich, an Ojibwe author who has explored themes of mixed-race identity and cultural hybridity in her novels and poetry, and who has promoted Native literature and storytelling as a means of cultural preservation and resistance
• Mixed-race Natives who serve as cultural brokers may face challenges and tensions in navigating their multiple identities and loyalties, but can also play important roles in fostering cross-cultural understanding and advocating for Native rights and perspectives

Urban Native organizations and initiatives

• Urban Native organizations and initiatives have emerged to address the specific needs and concerns of Native peoples in cities, providing cultural programming, social services, and political advocacy
• Examples of urban Native organizations and initiatives include:
  • The National Urban Indian Family Coalition, which advocates for the rights and well-being of urban Native families and children, and provides resources and support for urban Native organizations across the country
  • The Native American Community Development Institute in Minneapolis, which works to promote economic development, housing, and cultural preservation for urban Native communities
• Urban Native organizations and initiatives often work in collaboration with tribal governments, social service agencies, and other community partners to address the complex challenges faced by Native peoples in cities, including poverty, housing insecurity, and health disparities
• Urban Native organizations and initiatives also play important roles in celebrating Native cultures and identities in cities, through events such as powwows, film festivals, and cultural workshops, and in providing opportunities for Native youth to connect with their heritage and build leadership skills

Contemporary issues and perspectives

• Mixed-race and urban Native communities continue to face ongoing struggles for recognition, rights, and self-determination, as they navigate the complex legacies of colonization, assimilation, and cultural dislocation
• Contemporary Native writers, artists, and activists are increasingly celebrating mixed-race and urban Native voices and perspectives, and asserting the diversity and vitality of Native identities and experiences
• The concept of intersectionality, which recognizes the ways in which different forms of oppression and marginalization intersect and compound each other, has become an important framework for understanding and addressing the challenges faced by mixed-race and urban Native communities
• The future of mixed-race and urban Native identities is shaped by ongoing struggles for cultural preservation, political sovereignty, and social justice, as well as by the resilience and creativity of Native peoples in adapting to new contexts and forging new forms of community and belonging

Ongoing struggles for recognition and rights

• Mixed-race and urban Native communities continue to face ongoing struggles for recognition and rights, as they navigate the complex legacies of colonization, assimilation, and cultural dislocation
• Examples of ongoing struggles for recognition and rights include:
  • The fight for federal recognition and sovereignty for Native tribes that have been denied or terminated, including many mixed-race and urban Native communities
  • The struggle for access to healthcare, education, and social services for urban Natives, who often face barriers and disparities in accessing these resources
• Mixed-race Natives may face particular challenges in asserting their Native identities and accessing tribal resources and benefits, due to issues of blood quantum, enrollment, and cultural authenticity
• Urban Natives may face challenges in maintaining their cultural connections and asserting their political rights, due to their geographic distance from tribal communities and the lack of recognition and support for urban Native issues in mainstream society

Celebrating mixed-race and urban Native voices

• Contemporary Native writers, artists, and activists are increasingly celebrating mixed-race and urban Native voices and perspectives, and asserting the diversity and vitality of Native ident