6.3 Cultural suppression and resistance
9 min read•august 20, 2024
of Native Americans has been a devastating aspect of colonialism. Forced policies, like boarding schools, aimed to eradicate indigenous cultures. Native languages were banned, religious practices suppressed, and sacred sites destroyed.
Despite this, Native communities have shown remarkable resilience. Oral traditions were preserved, ceremonies continued in secret, and ancestral lands protected. Literature, including autobiographies and fiction, has played a key role in resistance and reclaiming .
Impact of colonialism
- Colonialism had a profound and lasting impact on Native American communities, disrupting traditional ways of life, imposing forced assimilation policies, and causing widespread cultural suppression
- The effects of colonialism continue to be felt by Native American communities today, as they work to reclaim their cultural identities and assert their rights to self-determination
Disruption of traditional ways
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- Colonialism disrupted traditional Native American ways of life, including subsistence practices (hunting, gathering, agriculture), social structures, and cultural traditions
- The introduction of European diseases (smallpox, measles) decimated Native American populations, leading to the collapse of many communities and the loss of traditional knowledge
- The forced relocation of Native American tribes to reservations separated them from their ancestral lands and disrupted their connection to the natural world
- The imposition of European land ownership concepts conflicted with Native American understandings of land stewardship and communal use
Forced assimilation policies
- Forced assimilation policies aimed to eradicate Native American cultures and assimilate Native peoples into European-American society
- These policies included the forced removal of Native American children from their families and communities to attend boarding schools, where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
- The of 1887 aimed to break up tribal land holdings and encourage Native Americans to adopt European-American farming practices and lifestyles
- The of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to Native Americans, but also served as a tool of assimilation by encouraging them to abandon their tribal identities
Boarding school system
- The was a key component of forced assimilation policies, with the goal of "civilizing" Native American children by separating them from their families and communities
- Children in boarding schools were subjected to strict discipline, forced to speak English, and prohibited from practicing their cultural traditions or maintaining ties to their communities
- Many children in boarding schools experienced physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, as well as malnutrition and disease due to poor living conditions
- The legacy of the boarding school system continues to impact Native American communities, with many individuals struggling with the trauma of their experiences and the loss of cultural knowledge and language
Strategies of cultural suppression
- Colonial authorities employed various strategies to suppress Native American cultures, including the banning of native languages, the suppression of religious practices, and the destruction of sacred sites
- These strategies aimed to eradicate Native American cultural identities and force assimilation into European-American society
Banning of native languages
- Colonial authorities and later the U.S. government banned the use of Native American languages in schools, government interactions, and public spaces
- Children in boarding schools were punished for speaking their native languages, often through physical abuse or humiliation
- The loss of native languages led to the erosion of cultural knowledge, as many traditional stories, songs, and prayers were passed down orally
- Today, many Native American communities are working to revitalize their languages through immersion schools, language classes, and other preservation efforts
Suppression of religious practices
- Colonial authorities and later the U.S. government suppressed Native American religious practices, viewing them as "pagan" or "savage"
- The , a religious movement that emerged in the late 19th century, was seen as a threat to U.S. authority and led to the massacre of Lakota people at Wounded Knee in 1890
- The of 1978 aimed to protect Native American religious practices, but many communities still face challenges in accessing sacred sites and practicing their traditions
Destruction of sacred sites
- Colonial authorities and later the U.S. government destroyed many Native American sacred sites, including burial grounds, ceremonial spaces, and natural landmarks
- The construction of dams, highways, and other infrastructure projects often led to the destruction or desecration of sacred sites
- The desecration of sacred sites not only caused spiritual harm to Native American communities but also erased important cultural landmarks and gathering places
- Today, many Native American communities are working to protect their sacred sites through legal action, activism, and cultural preservation efforts
Native resistance movements
- Despite the strategies of cultural suppression employed by colonial authorities and the U.S. government, Native American communities have a long history of resistance and resilience
- Native resistance movements have taken many forms, including the preservation of oral traditions, the continuation of ceremonies, and the protection of ancestral lands
Preservation of oral traditions
- Oral traditions, including stories, songs, and prayers, have been a key means of preserving Native American cultural knowledge and identity in the face of cultural suppression
- Elders and community members have worked to pass down these traditions to younger generations, ensuring their survival and continued relevance
- The recording and transcription of oral traditions has also played a role in their preservation, with many communities working to create written archives of their cultural heritage
Continuation of ceremonies
- Despite the suppression of Native American religious practices, many communities have continued to practice their ceremonies in secret or in modified forms
- The Sun Dance, for example, has remained an important ceremony for many Plains tribes, even though it was banned by the U.S. government in the late 19th century
- The continuation of ceremonies has been a powerful means of asserting cultural identity and maintaining connections to ancestral traditions
Protection of ancestral lands
- Native American communities have long fought to protect their ancestral lands from encroachment, resource extraction, and desecration
- The , founded in 1968, played a key role in advocating for Native American land rights and cultural preservation
- The occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 and the standoff at Wounded Knee in 1973 were high-profile examples of Native American activism in defense of ancestral lands
- Today, many Native American communities are involved in legal battles and activism to protect their ancestral lands from oil pipelines, mining projects, and other threats
Role of literature in resistance
- Literature has played a significant role in Native American resistance movements, serving as a means of cultural expression, historical documentation, and political advocacy
- Native American writers have used various literary forms, including autobiographical accounts, fictional narratives, and poetry, to assert their cultural identities and challenge dominant narratives
Autobiographical accounts
- Autobiographical accounts by Native American writers have provided firsthand testimonies of the impact of colonialism and cultural suppression on individuals and communities
- Works such as "Black Elk Speaks" (1932) and "Lakota Woman" (1990) have offered powerful insights into the experiences of Native American people and the struggle to maintain cultural identity in the face of adversity
- These accounts have also served as important historical documents, preserving the voices and perspectives of Native American individuals for future generations
Fictional narratives
- Fictional narratives by Native American writers have used storytelling to explore themes of cultural identity, historical trauma, and resistance
- Novels such as "Ceremony" (1977) by Leslie Marmon Silko and "House Made of Dawn" (1968) by N. Scott Momaday have incorporated elements of traditional oral storytelling and mythology to assert the enduring power of Native American cultural traditions
- These narratives have also served as a means of challenging stereotypical representations of Native American people in popular culture and asserting the complexity and diversity of Native American experiences
Poetry as cultural expression
- Poetry has been a powerful means of cultural expression for Native American writers, drawing on the rhythms and imagery of traditional oral poetry and song
- Poets such as Joy Harjo, Simon J. Ortiz, and Luci Tapahonso have used poetry to celebrate Native American cultural traditions, explore personal and collective histories, and advocate for social and political change
- Native American poetry has also played a role in efforts, with many poets writing in their native languages and incorporating traditional storytelling techniques
Reclaiming cultural identity
- In the face of centuries of cultural suppression and forced assimilation, Native American communities have worked to reclaim their cultural identities through a variety of means
- These efforts have included the revival of traditional practices, language revitalization efforts, and the assertion of tribal sovereignty
Revival of traditional practices
- Many Native American communities have worked to revive traditional practices that were suppressed or lost due to colonialism and forced assimilation
- These practices include traditional forms of agriculture, such as the cultivation of the Three Sisters (corn, beans, and squash), as well as traditional arts and crafts (basketry, pottery, weaving)
- The revival of traditional practices has been a means of asserting cultural identity, maintaining connections to ancestral knowledge, and promoting community health and well-being
Language revitalization efforts
- Language revitalization efforts have been a key component of reclaiming cultural identity for many Native American communities
- These efforts have included the creation of immersion schools, where children are taught entirely in their native language, as well as adult language classes and the development of language learning materials
- The revitalization of native languages has been a means of preserving cultural knowledge, asserting cultural identity, and promoting intergenerational connections
Assertion of tribal sovereignty
- The assertion of tribal sovereignty has been a critical means of reclaiming cultural identity and self-determination for Native American communities
- Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent right of Native American tribes to govern themselves and manage their own affairs, as recognized by treaties and federal law
- The exercise of tribal sovereignty has included the development of tribal courts, the management of natural resources, and the provision of social services and education to tribal members
- The assertion of tribal sovereignty has been a means of challenging the legacy of colonialism and forced assimilation and promoting the cultural, economic, and political self-determination of Native American communities
Contemporary cultural resilience
- Despite the ongoing challenges faced by Native American communities, including poverty, health disparities, and the legacy of historical trauma, there are many examples of contemporary cultural resilience and revival
- These examples include Indigenous activism, Native-led education initiatives, and the celebration of cultural heritage
Indigenous activism
- Indigenous activism has taken many forms in recent years, from the protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline at Standing Rock to the movement to recognize Indigenous Peoples' Day in place of Columbus Day
- Indigenous activists have used social media, direct action, and legal strategies to advocate for environmental justice, cultural preservation, and the rights of Indigenous peoples around the world
- The global Indigenous rights movement has brought attention to the ongoing struggles of Indigenous communities and the importance of recognizing and respecting Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination
Native-led education initiatives
- Native-led education initiatives have been a key means of promoting cultural resilience and reclaiming control over the education of Native American children
- These initiatives have included the creation of tribal colleges and universities, the development of culturally responsive curricula, and the incorporation of traditional knowledge and practices into educational settings
- Native-led education initiatives have been a means of asserting the value and relevance of Native American cultural traditions and preparing future generations to be leaders in their communities
Celebration of cultural heritage
- The celebration of cultural heritage has been a powerful means of promoting cultural resilience and pride among Native American communities
- Cultural festivals, powwows, and other events have provided opportunities for Native American people to come together, share their traditions, and assert their cultural identities
- The celebration of cultural heritage has also been a means of educating non-Native people about the richness and diversity of Native American cultures and challenging stereotypes and misconceptions
- The ongoing celebration of Native American cultural heritage is a testament to the resilience and creativity of Native American communities in the face of centuries of cultural suppression and forced assimilation
Key Terms to Review (21)
American Indian Movement (AIM): The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a grassroots organization founded in 1968 that advocates for the rights, sovereignty, and cultural preservation of Native Americans in the United States. It emerged during a time of social upheaval and aimed to address issues such as poverty, discrimination, and the need for greater tribal self-determination, reflecting broader civil rights movements of the era. AIM's activism included high-profile protests and legal battles that highlighted the struggles of Indigenous communities against cultural suppression and stereotypes.
American Indian Religious Freedom Act: The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA), enacted in 1978, is a U.S. law designed to protect and preserve the religious rights and cultural practices of Native Americans. It was a response to historical injustices where indigenous spiritual practices were suppressed, recognizing the importance of religious freedom as a fundamental human right. The act not only aimed to restore these rights but also acknowledged the significance of traditional beliefs, ceremonies, and access to sacred sites for Native communities.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and norms of another culture, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This term is particularly significant in understanding the dynamics of cultural suppression and resistance, as marginalized communities may face pressure to conform to dominant cultures, while simultaneously resisting this loss of identity.
Boarding school system: The boarding school system refers to the educational framework established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, specifically aimed at Native American children, with the intention of assimilating them into Euro-American culture. This system sought to erase Indigenous languages, traditions, and identities by placing Native American children in boarding schools where they were separated from their families and communities, often facing harsh discipline and cultural suppression.
Ceremonial practices: Ceremonial practices refer to structured and often symbolic activities that hold significant meaning within a culture, particularly relating to rituals, celebrations, and communal gatherings. These practices serve as expressions of cultural identity, spirituality, and community cohesion, especially in the face of cultural suppression, as they provide a means for groups to resist erasure and maintain their traditions despite external pressures.
Colonization: Colonization is the process of establishing control over a territory and its people by a foreign power, often resulting in the displacement of indigenous populations and the introduction of new cultural norms. This process can lead to significant changes in societal structures, moral lessons, cultural values, and the evolution of narratives that reflect these shifts.
Cultural Genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the systematic destruction of a group's culture, language, traditions, and identity, often through policies and practices that aim to assimilate or erase a people’s cultural heritage. This term highlights the impact of historical actions that have sought to suppress Indigenous cultures, leading to loss of languages, customs, and communal identity. It connects to various efforts made by dominant societies to impose their culture while undermining or eliminating the unique identities of marginalized groups.
Cultural Identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular culture or group, shaped by shared customs, values, beliefs, and experiences. It plays a crucial role in forming individual and community identities, impacting moral lessons, narratives, social dynamics, and responses to challenges.
Cultural Revitalization: Cultural revitalization refers to the process through which communities, especially marginalized or oppressed groups, seek to restore and promote their cultural heritage, practices, and identity. This effort is often a response to historical trauma, cultural suppression, and external influences that have threatened the survival of traditional ways of life.
Cultural suppression: Cultural suppression refers to the systematic undermining or elimination of a particular culture, its practices, beliefs, and expressions, often enforced by a dominant group or authority. This can involve laws, policies, or societal pressure that restricts cultural practices, language use, and traditional customs. It also highlights the power dynamics involved in maintaining cultural hegemony and the resistance that often arises in response.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting individual plots of land to families and granting them U.S. citizenship. This policy sought to transform tribal land ownership into private ownership, which fundamentally changed the communal nature of Native American land use and aimed to eradicate traditional practices.
Geronimo: Geronimo was a prominent leader of the Apache tribe known for his fierce resistance against the U.S. government's attempts to forcibly remove his people from their ancestral lands in the late 19th century. His name has become synonymous with bravery and the struggle for Native American rights, reflecting broader themes of separation from family and community, cultural suppression, and historical resistance movements.
Ghost Dance: The Ghost Dance was a religious movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century that aimed to restore their traditional way of life and bring about a spiritual revival. This movement emerged as a response to cultural suppression and aimed to unite Native Americans in resistance against the colonial forces that sought to erase their identities and practices. The Ghost Dance symbolized hope for many tribes, expressing their desire for peace, harmony, and a return to their ancestral roots amid widespread oppression.
Indian Citizenship Act: The Indian Citizenship Act, enacted in 1924, granted U.S. citizenship to Native Americans born in the United States, marking a significant shift in the legal status of Indigenous peoples. Before this act, Native Americans were largely excluded from citizenship rights and benefits, leading to cultural suppression as their identities and sovereignty were undermined. The act represents both a legal recognition of Native Americans and a response to their ongoing struggles for rights and representation.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act aimed to open up land for white settlers and was a significant event in the broader context of U.S. expansion and policies affecting Indigenous peoples.
Indian Self-Determination Act: The Indian Self-Determination Act, enacted in 1975, allows Native American tribes to have greater control over their own affairs, including the management of federal funds and programs. This legislation marked a significant shift from previous policies of assimilation and cultural suppression, empowering tribes to make decisions that affect their own communities and cultural preservation. By promoting self-governance, the Act supports the revival of tribal traditions and languages while also fostering solidarity among different tribes.
Intergenerational trauma: Intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological and emotional effects of trauma that are passed down from one generation to another, impacting the descendants of those who directly experienced the trauma. This concept highlights how traumatic experiences can shape familial and cultural identities, influencing behavior, mental health, and social dynamics across generations.
Land reclamation: Land reclamation is the process of restoring and rehabilitating damaged or lost land, particularly in areas affected by environmental degradation, colonization, or urban development. This practice not only aims to recover land for productive use but also serves as a means of asserting cultural identity and sovereignty for Indigenous communities, making it a vital aspect in addressing cultural suppression, fostering solidarity among diverse groups, and supporting historical resistance and activism.
Language revitalization: Language revitalization is the process of reviving and promoting a language that is at risk of falling out of use or has already become endangered. This effort is vital for preserving cultural identity and heritage, as language is a key component of community narratives and traditions. Through various strategies such as education, community engagement, and media production, language revitalization not only aims to restore speaking practices but also reinforces the cultural significance tied to those languages.
Settler colonialism: Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism where settlers establish permanent residence in a new territory, often displacing Indigenous populations and asserting control over land and resources. This process leads to the systematic suppression of Indigenous cultures and the imposition of foreign governance structures, resulting in significant social, political, and economic changes that can persist for generations.
Wovoka: Wovoka was a Northern Paiute religious leader who is best known for his role in the Ghost Dance movement during the late 19th century. His teachings emphasized a spiritual revival and foretold the return of ancestral Native Americans and the restoration of their traditional ways of life. This movement emerged as a form of resistance against cultural suppression and aimed to unite various tribes in hopes of reclaiming their heritage and autonomy.