6.1 Assimilation policies and practices
9 min read•august 20, 2024
Assimilation policies aimed to erase Native American cultures and force conformity to white American society. These practices sought to eliminate tribal identities, integrate natives into white society, and impose Christianity. The ultimate goal was to "civilize" Native Americans by stripping away their traditional ways of life.
Methods of assimilation included , land allotment, language suppression, and banning traditional practices. These policies had devastating impacts on native communities, causing cultural loss, trauma, family disruption, and economic hardship. Despite this, many Native Americans resisted assimilation through cultural preservation, adaptation, activism, and reclaiming .
Goals of assimilation
- Assimilation policies aimed to erase Native American cultural identities and force them to conform to white American society
- The ultimate goal was to "civilize" Native Americans by stripping away their traditional ways of life and imposing European-American culture
- Assimilation was seen as necessary for the expansion of the United States and the exploitation of native lands and resources
Elimination of tribal identity
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- Assimilation policies sought to break down the communal bonds and cultural ties that formed the basis of tribal identities
- The concept of individual property ownership was imposed to undermine the traditional practice of collective land stewardship
- Native Americans were pressured to abandon their tribal affiliations and adopt a homogenized American identity
- Tribal governments and leadership structures were dismantled to weaken political unity and resistance
Integration into white society
- Assimilation required Native Americans to adopt the language, dress, customs, and values of white American society
- Education in white-run schools aimed to indoctrinate native children with European-American culture and prepare them for menial roles in white society
- Policies encouraged Native Americans to leave their reservations and assimilate into urban areas or white rural communities
- Intermarriage with whites was promoted as a means of biological and cultural absorption into the dominant society
Adoption of Christianity
- Christian missionaries played a central role in the assimilation of Native Americans
- Conversion to Christianity was seen as essential for "civilizing" native peoples and saving their souls
- Mission schools sought to replace traditional spiritual beliefs and practices with Christian doctrine
- Many native children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in Christian boarding schools
- Adopting Christianity was often a requirement for Native Americans to receive basic rights and services from the U.S. government
Methods of assimilation
Boarding schools
- Boarding schools were a primary tool of assimilation, with the motto "Kill the Indian, Save the Man"
- Native children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in distant boarding schools run by the government or Christian missionaries
- Students were forbidden from speaking their native languages, wearing traditional clothing, or practicing their cultures
- Harsh discipline, abuse, and neglect were common in boarding schools, leading to widespread trauma and mortality
- The boarding school system aimed to break the bond between native children and their families, tribes, and cultures
Allotment of tribal lands
- The of 1887 authorized the allotment of tribal lands to individual Native American households
- Allotment was intended to break up communal land ownership, encourage private property and farming, and open "surplus" lands to white settlement
- Many Native Americans lost their allotted lands due to poverty, fraud, or government mismanagement
- Allotment resulted in the loss of over 90 million acres of tribal lands and the fragmentation of reservations
- The policy undermined traditional land-based economies and created a checkerboard pattern of land ownership that persists today
Suppression of native languages
- Native American languages were targeted for elimination as part of the assimilation process
- Government officials and missionaries believed that English was essential for Native Americans to fully assimilate into white society
- Students in boarding schools were punished for speaking their native languages, often through physical abuse
- Many native languages were lost or driven to the brink of extinction as a result of these policies
- The suppression of native languages disrupted the transmission of cultural knowledge and identity across generations
Banning of traditional practices
- Assimilation policies sought to eradicate Native American spiritual practices, ceremonies, and cultural traditions
- The Indian Religious Crimes Code of 1883 banned many traditional practices, such as the Sun Dance and potlatch ceremonies
- Native Americans faced arrest, imprisonment, or withholding of rations for participating in banned cultural activities
- Sacred objects and cultural artifacts were confiscated or destroyed by government agents and missionaries
- The banning of traditional practices undermined the social, spiritual, and cultural fabric of native communities
Impact on native communities
Loss of cultural identity
- Assimilation policies led to the erosion of Native American cultural identities over generations
- Many native people, particularly boarding school survivors, struggled with a sense of alienation from both their tribal communities and white society
- The loss of language, traditional knowledge, and cultural practices made it difficult for younger generations to connect with their heritage
- Some native people internalized the negative stereotypes and racism promoted by assimilation policies, leading to shame and rejection of their own cultures
- The legacy of cultural loss continues to impact native communities today as they work to revitalize their languages and traditions
Trauma and abuse in schools
- The boarding school experience was deeply traumatic for many Native American children
- Physical, sexual, and emotional abuse was widespread in boarding schools, perpetrated by teachers and administrators
- Children suffered from malnourishment, disease, and neglect due to overcrowding and poor living conditions
- The trauma of forced separation from family and community, coupled with the abuse endured in schools, left lasting psychological scars
- Boarding school trauma has been linked to high rates of addiction, suicide, and mental health issues in native communities
Disruption of family structures
- The removal of children to boarding schools and the pressure to assimilate into white society profoundly disrupted native family structures
- Many children spent years away from their families, losing the opportunity to learn parenting skills and cultural traditions
- Some children never returned home, having died in schools or been adopted out to white families
- The breakdown of traditional extended family networks and parenting practices has contributed to cycles of abuse and neglect
- The legacy of family disruption is still felt in many native communities grappling with child welfare issues and the foster care system
Economic hardship from land loss
- The loss of tribal lands through allotment and other policies devastated native economies and livelihoods
- Many native people were left landless and forced to leave their reservations in search of wage labor
- The fragmentation of tribal lands made it difficult to maintain traditional land-based practices such as hunting, gathering, and agriculture
- Poverty and unemployment became endemic in many native communities, as economic opportunities were limited on and off reservations
- The economic hardship resulting from land loss has contributed to persistent disparities in health, education, and infrastructure in native communities
Native resistance to assimilation
Preservation of traditions
- Despite the intense pressures of assimilation, many Native American communities fought to preserve their cultural traditions and identities
- Elders and cultural leaders worked to pass on traditional knowledge, languages, and practices to younger generations, often in secret
- Some native people continued to practice their ceremonies and religions underground, risking arrest and persecution
- Traditional arts and crafts, such as basketry, weaving, and pottery, helped to maintain cultural continuity and identity
- The preservation of traditions laid the groundwork for the cultural revitalization movements of the late 20th century
Adaptation vs assimilation
- Some Native American leaders advocated for selective adaptation to white society as a means of survival and advancement
- These leaders believed that adopting certain aspects of white culture, such as education and business skills, could help native people navigate the dominant society while maintaining their cultural identities
- Other leaders rejected assimilation altogether and worked to maintain traditional ways of life and resist encroachment on tribal lands and sovereignty
- The debate between adaptation and assimilation strategies reflected the diversity of native responses to the pressures of colonization
- Ultimately, many native people pursued a middle ground, adapting to changing circumstances while fighting to preserve their cultural core
Political activism for rights
- Native American activists and leaders organized to resist assimilation policies and fight for their rights and sovereignty
- Pan-Indian organizations, such as the Society of American Indians and the National Congress of American Indians, advocated for native interests at the national level
- Tribal leaders fought legal battles to protect their lands, resources, and treaty rights in the face of encroachment and broken promises
- The Red Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s saw a new generation of native activists using direct action and civil disobedience to demand and an end to assimilation policies
- Political activism has been instrumental in securing important victories for native rights, such as the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975
Reclamation of tribal sovereignty
- The fight against assimilation has been closely tied to the struggle for tribal sovereignty and self-determination
- Tribal leaders have worked to assert their inherent rights as sovereign nations, with the power to govern their own affairs and manage their resources
- The of 1934 helped to restore some measure of tribal sovereignty by ending allotment and supporting the development of tribal governments
- The self-determination era of the 1970s saw a shift towards greater tribal control over education, health care, and economic development
- The reclamation of tribal sovereignty has been an ongoing process, as native nations continue to navigate their relationship with the federal government and assert their rights as distinct political entities
Legacy of assimilation policies
Intergenerational trauma
- The trauma inflicted by assimilation policies, particularly the boarding school experience, has been passed down through generations of Native American families
- Many survivors of boarding schools struggled with addiction, abuse, and mental health issues, which in turn affected their children and grandchildren
- The loss of cultural identity and family connections resulting from assimilation has left many native people feeling disconnected from their heritage and communities
- Intergenerational trauma has been linked to high rates of suicide, substance abuse, and domestic violence in native communities
- Healing from intergenerational trauma has become a central focus of many native-led health and wellness initiatives
Ongoing challenges in education
- The legacy of assimilation policies continues to shape the experiences of Native American students in education systems today
- Many native students attend underfunded and under-resourced schools on or near reservations, leading to disparities in academic achievement and graduation rates
- Culturally insensitive curricula and a lack of native teachers and role models can alienate native students and contribute to disengagement from school
- Disciplinary practices in schools often mirror the punitive approaches of the boarding school era, leading to disproportionate rates of suspension and expulsion for native students
- Efforts to create culturally responsive education programs and increase native control over schools aim to address these ongoing challenges
Revitalization of native cultures
- In recent decades, there has been a resurgence of efforts to revitalize Native American languages, traditions, and cultural practices
- Language immersion schools and programs have been established to teach native languages to new generations of speakers
- Cultural festivals, pow wows, and other events provide opportunities for native people to celebrate their heritage and share their traditions with the broader public
- Native artists, writers, and filmmakers are using their crafts to tell native stories and perspectives, challenging stereotypes and reclaiming cultural narratives
- The revitalization of native cultures is seen as essential for healing from the wounds of assimilation and ensuring the survival and thriving of native communities
Healing through storytelling
- Storytelling has always been a central part of Native American cultures, serving to transmit knowledge, values, and identity across generations
- In the face of assimilation policies that sought to silence native voices, storytelling has emerged as a powerful tool for healing and resistance
- Native writers, poets, and oral historians have used their craft to bear witness to the traumas of assimilation and celebrate the resilience of their communities
- Sharing stories of boarding school experiences, family histories, and cultural traditions helps to break the silence around the impacts of assimilation and promote collective healing
- Storytelling also serves to educate non-native audiences about the rich diversity of native cultures and the ongoing struggles for justice and self-determination
Key Terms to Review (18)
Acculturation: Acculturation is the process through which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, often occurring when two cultures come into contact. This can involve changes in language, customs, beliefs, and values, and can lead to a blending of cultures or a dominant culture overshadowing a minority one. The concept is particularly relevant in understanding the experiences of Indigenous peoples in the context of forced assimilation policies and practices.
Boarding schools: Boarding schools were institutions established primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to educate Native American children, often with the intent of assimilating them into Euro-American culture. These schools enforced a strict curriculum that focused on English language proficiency, vocational training, and the abandonment of indigenous customs, often resulting in cultural disconnection and identity loss for students.
Carlisle Indian School: The Carlisle Indian School was an off-reservation boarding school established in 1879 in Pennsylvania, aimed at assimilating Native American students into Euro-American culture. Its motto, 'Kill the Indian, Save the Man,' encapsulated the school's mission to strip away Indigenous identities and replace them with Western values and practices through education and vocational training.
Colonialism: Colonialism is the practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country or territory, often involving the exploitation of its resources and people. This process typically leads to the imposition of the colonizer's culture, language, and governance on the colonized, creating deep and lasting impacts on indigenous populations and their ways of life.
Cultural displacement: Cultural displacement refers to the feeling of being uprooted from one's cultural identity, traditions, and community due to external pressures or influences. This often occurs as a result of assimilation policies that force individuals or groups to abandon their native customs and adopt those of a dominant culture, leading to a loss of cultural heritage and identity.
Cultural Genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the systematic destruction of a group's culture, language, traditions, and identity, often through policies and practices that aim to assimilate or erase a people’s cultural heritage. This term highlights the impact of historical actions that have sought to suppress Indigenous cultures, leading to loss of languages, customs, and communal identity. It connects to various efforts made by dominant societies to impose their culture while undermining or eliminating the unique identities of marginalized groups.
Cultural revival: Cultural revival refers to the renewed interest and active participation in the traditions, practices, and beliefs of a particular culture, often in response to historical oppression or marginalization. This movement seeks to reclaim and revitalize cultural identity, promoting the significance of cultural heritage in shaping community identity and resistance against assimilation.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting individual plots of land to families and granting them U.S. citizenship. This policy sought to transform tribal land ownership into private ownership, which fundamentally changed the communal nature of Native American land use and aimed to eradicate traditional practices.
Identity loss: Identity loss refers to the process in which individuals or groups lose their cultural, social, or personal identities, often as a result of external pressures or changes. This term is especially relevant when discussing the effects of assimilation policies and practices that aim to integrate minority groups into the dominant culture, leading to a gradual erosion of their unique cultural traits and heritage.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act aimed to open up land for white settlers and was a significant event in the broader context of U.S. expansion and policies affecting Indigenous peoples.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 was a landmark piece of legislation aimed at reversing the assimilationist policies that had dominated U.S. government relations with Native American tribes. It sought to restore some degree of self-governance and tribal sovereignty to Native American nations, while also encouraging them to develop their own governments and economies.
Integration: Integration refers to the process of combining different groups or cultures into a cohesive whole while respecting and maintaining their distinct identities. In the context of assimilation policies and practices, integration focuses on fostering relationships and interactions among diverse populations, allowing them to coexist and contribute to a shared society without losing their unique cultural characteristics.
John Collier: John Collier was a key figure in the development and implementation of Native American policy in the early 20th century, particularly as the Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945. He is best known for his efforts to reverse the assimilation policies that dominated previous federal approaches, advocating for the recognition of Native American rights and cultural preservation.
Pan-Indianism: Pan-Indianism is a political and cultural movement aimed at unifying Native American tribes and individuals across diverse backgrounds to promote common interests and rights. This concept emerged as a response to colonization, assimilation policies, and the shared struggles against stereotypes and misrepresentation. By fostering solidarity among different tribes, pan-Indianism helps to create a collective identity that emphasizes shared experiences and cultural heritage, ultimately advocating for Native American rights and sovereignty.
Paternalism: Paternalism is a policy or practice where those in authority restrict the freedom and responsibilities of individuals for what is assumed to be their own good. This concept is often connected to assimilation policies, where dominant cultures impose their values and practices on marginalized groups, believing that they are acting in the best interest of those groups.
Self-determination: Self-determination is the principle that individuals and groups have the right to determine their own political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. This concept emphasizes autonomy and independence, especially for marginalized communities seeking to assert their identity and governance. It is particularly relevant in discussions about the rights of Indigenous peoples, where it intersects with contemporary issues, historical assimilation policies, future aspirations, and cultural reclamation efforts.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself or another state, embodying the concept of political independence and self-determination. It is a crucial aspect for Indigenous nations as it defines their ability to exercise control over their land, culture, and governance free from external interference, highlighting the ongoing struggles and adaptations faced by these communities throughout history.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands to designated Indian Territory in the 1830s, primarily affecting the Cherokee Nation. This tragic journey led to immense suffering and death due to harsh conditions, highlighting the trials faced by Indigenous peoples during this period of removal and the broader transformation of their societies.