8.4 Two-Spirit identity and LGBTQ+ issues
10 min read•august 20, 2024
identity encompasses diverse gender expressions in Native American cultures. Traditionally respected, these roles were suppressed by . Today, Two-Spirit people reclaim their heritage, bridging traditional and modern perspectives.
face unique challenges, including discrimination and health disparities. Despite this, they show resilience through activism, art, and community building. Their experiences highlight the intersection of Indigenous and LGBTQ+ identities in contemporary society.
Two-Spirit identity overview
- Two-Spirit is an umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe people who fulfill a traditional third-gender or gender-variant ceremonial and social role in their cultures
- The term was coined in 1990 at the Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering in Winnipeg, Canada, as a means of unifying various gender identities and expressions of Native American/First Nations/Indigenous individuals
- Two-Spirit people have both a male and female spirit within them and are blessed by their Creator to see life through the eyes of both genders
Traditional vs modern perspectives
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- Traditionally, many Native American cultures recognized and respected gender diversity, seeing Two-Spirit individuals as having special spiritual and social roles in their communities
- European colonization and forced assimilation led to the suppression of Two-Spirit identities and roles, as they were seen as incompatible with Western binary gender norms
- In modern times, there has been a resurgence of Two-Spirit identity as a way to reclaim traditional Native understandings of gender and sexuality and assert Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination
Spiritual and cultural roles
- In many traditional Native cultures, Two-Spirit people were seen as spiritually gifted and held important roles such as healers, mediators, counselors, and storytellers
- Two-Spirit individuals often served as intermediaries between the physical and spiritual worlds and were believed to have special insight and powers
- They also played important roles in ceremonies, such as the who led the Enemyway ceremony, and the who performed sacred dances
Gender identity and expression
- Two-Spirit is not solely about sexual orientation, but encompasses a wide range of gender identities and expressions that fall outside of Western binary gender norms
- Some Two-Spirit people identify as both male and female, while others see themselves as a distinct third gender or as gender fluid or non-binary
- Two-Spirit individuals may express their gender through clothing, hairstyles, mannerisms, and social roles, often combining elements of both masculinity and femininity
Two-Spirit in various tribes
- While the term Two-Spirit is a modern pan-Indian construct, many individual Native American tribes have their own specific terms, roles, and traditions related to gender diversity
- The expression of Two-Spirit identity can vary widely between different tribal nations, each with their own unique cultural context and understanding of gender
- It is important to recognize the diversity of Two-Spirit experiences and not assume a one-size-fits-all definition across all Native cultures
Navajo nádleehí tradition
- In Navajo culture, the nádleehí (meaning "one who transforms") are individuals who embody both male and female characteristics and are seen as a separate gender category
- Nádleehí often take on the social and ceremonial roles typically associated with the opposite sex, such as weaving for nádleehí who were assigned male at birth
- The most famous nádleehí was Hastiin Klah (1867-1937), a renowned weaver and medicine man who preserved Navajo spiritual knowledge and traditions
Zuni lhamana identity
- The Zuni people of New Mexico recognize the lhamana (meaning "two-sided") as a third gender category that combines male and female traits and roles
- Lhamana often wear a mixture of male and female clothing and hairstyles and take on tasks associated with both genders, such as pottery making and hunting
- Lhamana play important roles in Zuni ceremonies, such as the Shalako festival where they perform sacred dances as kachinas (spirit beings)
Lakota winkte role
- The Lakota people of the Great Plains recognize the winkte (meaning "wants to be like a woman") as a third gender category for male-bodied individuals who adopt female dress, behavior, and social roles
- Winkte are seen as having special spiritual powers and often serve as healers, counselors, and matchmakers in their communities
- The most famous winkte was Osh-Tisch (meaning "Finds Them and Kills Them"), a skilled warrior and medicine person who fought alongside Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the 19th century
Historical suppression and discrimination
- The arrival of European colonizers and the imposition of Christian missionary values led to the suppression and stigmatization of Two-Spirit identities and traditions in many Native communities
- Two-Spirit individuals were often targeted for violence, forced assimilation, and conversion efforts by colonial authorities and religious institutions seeking to eradicate Indigenous gender and sexual diversity
- The legacy of and discrimination continues to impact Two-Spirit people today, who face higher rates of mental health issues, substance abuse, and suicide compared to other Native Americans
Impact of European colonization
- European colonizers brought with them strict binary gender norms and homophobic attitudes rooted in Christian religious beliefs, which clashed with Native understandings of gender and sexuality
- Spanish conquistadors and missionaries in particular targeted Two-Spirit individuals for persecution, seeing them as a threat to their efforts to convert Native peoples to Catholicism
- Colonial authorities passed laws and regulations aimed at suppressing Two-Spirit identities and practices, such as the 1876 Indian Act in Canada which prohibited "cross-dressing" and same-sex relationships among Indigenous peoples
Forced assimilation in boarding schools
- In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the U.S. and Canadian governments established a system of boarding schools designed to forcibly assimilate Native children into white Christian society
- These schools prohibited Native language, culture, and spiritual practices, including Two-Spirit traditions and gender expressions
- Two-Spirit children in boarding schools often faced severe physical and sexual abuse, as well as psychological trauma from being separated from their families and communities and forced to conform to Western gender norms
Lasting effects on Two-Spirit visibility
- The historical suppression and stigmatization of Two-Spirit identities has led to a lack of visibility and understanding of gender diversity in many contemporary Native communities
- Many Two-Spirit elders and knowledge keepers were lost to violence, disease, and forced assimilation, leading to a break in the transmission of Two-Spirit traditions and teachings
- Two-Spirit people today often face a double burden of discrimination and marginalization, both as Indigenous individuals and as members of the LGBTQ+ community
Contemporary Two-Spirit activism
- In recent decades, there has been a resurgence of Two-Spirit activism and organizing aimed at reclaiming traditional identities, advocating for Two-Spirit rights and visibility, and building community and support networks
- Two-Spirit activists have been at the forefront of movements for Indigenous sovereignty, LGBTQ+ equality, and environmental justice, bringing a unique intersectional perspective to these struggles
- Two-Spirit organizations and gatherings have emerged as important spaces for healing, cultural preservation, and political mobilization
Reclaiming traditional identities
- Many Two-Spirit people today are working to reclaim and revitalize traditional gender roles and ceremonies that were suppressed or lost due to colonization and assimilation
- This includes learning ancestral languages, studying oral histories and archival records, and consulting with elders and knowledge keepers to piece together Two-Spirit teachings and practices
- Two-Spirit individuals are also creating new traditions and expressions of gender diversity that reflect their contemporary experiences and identities
Intersection with LGBTQ+ movements
- Two-Spirit activists have been involved in the broader LGBTQ+ rights movement, bringing Indigenous perspectives and issues to the forefront
- At the same time, Two-Spirit people have also challenged the mainstream LGBTQ+ movement to be more inclusive of Indigenous identities and to recognize the impacts of colonialism and racism on Two-Spirit communities
- Two-Spirit organizers have worked to build solidarity and allyship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous LGBTQ+ people, while also asserting the specificity and sovereignty of Two-Spirit identities
Two-Spirit societies and gatherings
- Two-Spirit societies and organizations have emerged in many Native communities as spaces for support, cultural preservation, and political organizing
- These groups often host gatherings, conferences, and retreats that bring together Two-Spirit people from different tribal backgrounds to share knowledge, build community, and strategize for change
- Notable Two-Spirit gatherings include the International Two-Spirit Gathering, which has been held annually since 1988, and the Northeast Two-Spirit Society Gathering, which focuses on Two-Spirit people from the northeastern U.S. and Canada
Representation in art and media
- Two-Spirit artists, writers, and media makers are using their creative work to increase the visibility and understanding of Two-Spirit identities and experiences
- These representations challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about Two-Spirit people and provide important models of resilience, pride, and cultural continuity for Two-Spirit youth
- and media also serve as a form of cultural preservation and revitalization, documenting and transmitting Two-Spirit knowledge and traditions for future generations
Two-Spirit characters in literature
- In recent years, there has been a growing body of literature featuring Two-Spirit characters and themes, written by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous authors
- Notable examples include the novels "The Lesser Blessed" by Richard Van Camp (Tlicho Dene), "Johnny Appleseed" by Joshua Whitehead (Oji-Cree), and "Jonny Appleseed" by Joshua Whitehead
- These works explore the complexities and joys of Two-Spirit identity, as well as the impacts of colonialism, racism, and homophobia on Two-Spirit lives
Documentaries and films
- Documentary films have played an important role in increasing public awareness and understanding of Two-Spirit identities and issues
- Notable examples include "Two Spirits" (2009), which tells the story of Fred Martinez, a Navajo Two-Spirit teenager who was murdered in a hate crime, and "Sweetheart Dancers" (2019), which follows a Two-Spirit couple as they compete in a sweetheart dance competition at a powwow
- Fictional films featuring Two-Spirit characters include "Drunktown's Finest" (2014) by Navajo filmmaker Sydney Freeland and "Fire Song" (2015) by Adam Garnet Jones (Cree/Métis)
Two-Spirit artists and creators
- Two-Spirit artists are using a wide range of media, including painting, sculpture, photography, and performance art, to express their identities and experiences
- Notable Two-Spirit artists include Kent Monkman (Cree), who creates large-scale history paintings that subvert colonial narratives and center Two-Spirit perspectives, and Demian DinéYazhi' (Diné), who uses poetry, video, and installation art to explore themes of decolonization, sexuality, and environmental justice
- Two-Spirit musicians like Jeremy Dutcher (Wolastoqiyik) and Shawnee (Mohawk) are also using their music to celebrate Two-Spirit identity and advocate for Indigenous rights and sovereignty
Challenges facing Two-Spirit individuals
- Despite the growing visibility and acceptance of Two-Spirit identities, many Two-Spirit people continue to face significant challenges and barriers in their daily lives
- These challenges are rooted in the ongoing impacts of colonialism, racism, and homophobia, as well as the lack of legal recognition and protections for Two-Spirit rights and well-being
- Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach that centers Two-Spirit voices and experiences and works towards systemic change at the individual, community, and societal levels
Discrimination within Native communities
- While many traditional Native cultures historically respected and celebrated gender diversity, centuries of colonization and forced assimilation have led to the internalization of homophobic and transphobic attitudes in some Native communities
- Two-Spirit people may face discrimination, rejection, and even violence from their own families and communities, who may see their identities as a threat to cultural traditions or a sign of assimilation into white LGBTQ+ culture
- This discrimination can lead to feelings of isolation, shame, and self-doubt for Two-Spirit individuals, as well as higher rates of mental health issues and substance abuse
Lack of legal recognition and protections
- Two-Spirit people often fall through the cracks of legal systems that are based on binary gender categories and do not recognize the unique status and rights of Indigenous peoples
- Many Two-Spirit individuals lack access to identity documents that accurately reflect their gender identity, which can create barriers to accessing healthcare, housing, employment, and other basic services
- There is also a lack of explicit legal protections against discrimination based on Two-Spirit identity at the federal, state/provincial, and tribal levels
Health disparities and barriers to care
- Two-Spirit people face significant health disparities compared to other Native American and LGBTQ+ populations, including higher rates of HIV/AIDS, mental health issues, and substance abuse
- These disparities are rooted in the intersecting impacts of racism, homophobia, and transphobia, as well as the ongoing effects of historical trauma and marginalization
- Two-Spirit individuals also face barriers to accessing culturally competent and affirming healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas where there may be a lack of LGBTQ+-friendly providers and resources
Two-Spirit resilience and pride
- Despite the many challenges they face, Two-Spirit people have demonstrated incredible resilience, creativity, and pride in their identities and communities
- Two-Spirit activists and leaders are working to build a future where all Native LGBTQ+ people can live with dignity, safety, and self-determination, rooted in the wisdom and strength of their ancestral traditions
- By celebrating Two-Spirit identity and contributions, we can challenge the ongoing legacy of colonialism and create a more just and equitable world for all
Celebrating Two-Spirit identity
- Two-Spirit people are reclaiming and celebrating their identities through a wide range of cultural and artistic expressions, from traditional ceremonies and dances to contemporary fashion and social media
- events, such as powwows, parades, and film festivals, provide important spaces for community building, cultural sharing, and public visibility
- By openly embracing their Two-Spirit identity, individuals are challenging stereotypes and misconceptions about Native LGBTQ+ people and inspiring future generations to live authentically
Contributions to Native cultural revival
- Two-Spirit people are playing a vital role in the broader movement for Native and decolonization
- By reclaiming traditional gender roles and ceremonies, Two-Spirit individuals are helping to preserve and transmit Indigenous knowledge and values for future generations
- Two-Spirit artists, writers, and activists are also using their work to challenge colonial narratives and assert the resilience and sovereignty of Native peoples in the face of ongoing oppression and erasure
Building allyship and understanding
- Building allyship and understanding between Two-Spirit and non-Native LGBTQ+ communities is crucial for advancing Two-Spirit rights and well-being
- This requires non-Native allies to educate themselves about the unique histories, experiences, and cultural contexts of Two-Spirit identities, and to center Two-Spirit voices and leadership in their advocacy and activism
- It also means working to dismantle the systemic barriers and inequities that impact Two-Spirit lives, from healthcare and education to housing and employment
- By coming together in solidarity and mutual respect, we can create a world where all Two-Spirit people can thrive and where Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination are fully realized
Key Terms to Review (21)
Colonization: Colonization is the process through which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. This often involves the establishment of control over indigenous populations, leading to significant cultural, social, and political changes. In many cases, colonization has resulted in the marginalization or erasure of local identities, traditions, and practices, especially impacting those who do not conform to the dominant narratives imposed by colonizers.
Cultural reclamation: Cultural reclamation refers to the process through which marginalized or oppressed groups, particularly Indigenous peoples, reclaim and revitalize their cultural practices, languages, and identities that have been suppressed or erased. This concept is crucial in understanding the ongoing efforts to restore cultural pride and heritage within communities that have faced colonialism and assimilation policies. It highlights the importance of recognizing and celebrating diverse identities, including Two-Spirit individuals, in the context of broader LGBTQ+ issues.
Cultural revitalization: Cultural revitalization is the process through which a community or group seeks to renew, restore, or strengthen its cultural identity, traditions, and practices that may have been diminished or lost due to external influences such as colonization, globalization, or assimilation. This process often involves reclaiming and practicing languages, arts, and customs that are integral to the group's heritage, fostering a sense of belonging and community pride.
Gender fluidity: Gender fluidity is a concept that describes a flexible and changing experience of gender, where an individual's identity can shift between different gender expressions over time. This understanding challenges the traditional binary view of gender, emphasizing that identity is not fixed but can be influenced by various social, cultural, and personal factors. Gender fluidity recognizes that people may embody characteristics associated with masculinity, femininity, or a mix of both, and it plays an important role in discussions about gender roles and identities.
Historical trauma: Historical trauma refers to the cumulative emotional and psychological wounds experienced by a group over generations, resulting from significant traumatic events such as colonization, genocide, and cultural erasure. This trauma can affect the identity, culture, and well-being of communities, particularly among Indigenous populations, including Two-Spirit individuals who navigate both their cultural heritage and contemporary societal challenges.
Indigenous kinship systems: Indigenous kinship systems refer to the social structures and relationships that define familial ties and social roles within Native American and other indigenous cultures. These systems often prioritize collective identity over individualism, emphasizing interconnectedness among community members and guiding social behavior, responsibilities, and support networks. Such systems are crucial in understanding cultural practices, including the recognition of Two-Spirit identities and LGBTQ+ issues, as they shape perceptions of gender and sexuality within these communities.
Indigenous performance art: Indigenous performance art refers to creative expressions rooted in the cultural traditions, rituals, and storytelling practices of Indigenous peoples. This form of art often serves as a means to convey identity, history, and community values while addressing contemporary issues faced by these communities. Through dance, theater, music, and other performative elements, Indigenous artists express their unique cultural narratives and foster connection among audiences, particularly in the context of Two-Spirit identities and LGBTQ+ issues.
Indigenous rights movements: Indigenous rights movements are social and political efforts aimed at advocating for the rights and recognition of Indigenous peoples, including their cultural, land, and sovereignty rights. These movements address historical injustices, promote self-determination, and seek to ensure that Indigenous voices are heard in policy-making processes. They often intersect with issues related to identity, cultural preservation, and social justice.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a concept that examines how various social identities, such as race, gender, sexuality, and class, intersect and interact to shape individual experiences and systemic inequalities. It highlights the complexity of identity and the ways in which different forms of oppression can overlap, leading to unique challenges for individuals with multiple marginalized identities. Understanding intersectionality is crucial in analyzing diverse perspectives within communities, particularly in relation to marginalized groups.
Lakota Winkte: Lakota Winkte refers to a traditional gender identity within Lakota culture, often associated with individuals who embody both male and female characteristics or roles. Winkte are recognized as having a special spiritual significance and are often seen as mediators between genders, playing important roles in their communities. This identity is linked to broader concepts of Two-Spirit identities, which highlight the diverse ways gender can be understood and expressed in Indigenous cultures.
Navajo nádleehí: Navajo nádleehí refers to a unique gender identity within the Navajo culture, often translated as 'one who is in a constant state of change.' This identity is recognized as encompassing both masculine and feminine traits, representing a fluidity that challenges binary gender norms. Nádleehí individuals play important cultural roles and are often seen as healers or mediators within their communities, reflecting a deep respect for diversity in gender expressions.
Queer indigenous theory: Queer Indigenous theory is an interdisciplinary framework that combines Indigenous studies with queer theory, focusing on the unique experiences and identities of Indigenous peoples who identify as LGBTQ+. This theory challenges traditional narratives and recognizes the intersectionality of cultural, sexual, and gender identities within Indigenous communities, promoting a deeper understanding of Two-Spirit identities and broader LGBTQ+ issues in Native contexts.
Queer nation: Queer nation is a social and political movement that seeks to create a sense of belonging and identity for LGBTQ+ individuals, advocating for the rights and visibility of non-heteronormative people. This movement emphasizes community building and cultural expression, challenging dominant narratives around sexuality and gender. It fosters inclusivity, encouraging diverse identities to unite under a shared struggle against discrimination and oppression.
Traditional roles: Traditional roles refer to the established expectations and behaviors assigned to individuals based on their gender, sexual orientation, and cultural background within a society. These roles often dictate how individuals should behave in personal relationships, family structures, and community participation. In the context of Two-Spirit identity and LGBTQ+ issues, traditional roles can influence how individuals express their identities and navigate their relationships within both Indigenous cultures and broader societal contexts.
Two-Spirit: Two-Spirit is a term used by some Indigenous North American cultures to describe a person who embodies both masculine and feminine qualities, often serving a unique role in their community. This identity reflects a blending of gender and spiritual aspects, showing how traditional gender roles can differ from mainstream Western perspectives. Two-Spirit individuals are often respected and hold special cultural significance, representing a broader understanding of gender and sexuality within Indigenous cultures.
Two-spirit art: Two-spirit art refers to creative expressions that embody the unique experiences, identities, and cultural narratives of two-spirit individuals within Indigenous communities. This form of art plays a crucial role in bridging traditional Indigenous cultural practices with contemporary LGBTQ+ themes, promoting visibility, acceptance, and understanding of two-spirit identities.
Two-spirit ceremonies: Two-spirit ceremonies are cultural and spiritual practices that honor individuals who embody both masculine and feminine qualities, a concept rooted in many Indigenous cultures across North America. These ceremonies serve to affirm the unique identity of two-spirit people, celebrating their roles within the community and their connection to cultural traditions. They often involve rituals, prayers, and communal gatherings that reinforce the importance of two-spirit identities within Indigenous societies.
Two-spirit individuals: Two-spirit individuals are people who embody both masculine and feminine qualities within Indigenous cultures, often seen as having a unique spiritual role that transcends traditional gender categories. This term is rooted in various Native American cultures and reflects a deeper understanding of gender and sexuality beyond the binary framework. Two-spirit people often hold specific responsibilities within their communities, serving as healers, mediators, and cultural leaders.
Two-spirit pride: Two-spirit pride refers to the cultural, social, and personal affirmation of individuals who identify as two-spirit, a term used by some Indigenous North American cultures to encompass a range of gender identities that may include aspects of both male and female. This concept celebrates the unique role that two-spirit individuals hold in their communities, acknowledging their contributions while also addressing the struggles they face within both Indigenous and broader LGBTQ+ contexts. It emphasizes a sense of belonging, empowerment, and identity that honors the traditional understanding of gender within Indigenous cultures.
Wanda nanibush: Wanda nanibush refers to a cultural and spiritual identity within some Indigenous communities, often associated with individuals who embody both masculine and feminine qualities. This concept highlights the existence of gender diversity among Native American cultures, emphasizing the acceptance and recognition of Two-Spirit identities. The term connects deeply to the roles that these individuals have historically played in their communities, as well as the ongoing struggles faced by Two-Spirit people in contemporary society.
Zuni Lhamana: The Zuni Lhamana refers to a traditional identity among the Zuni people, specifically embodying a gender role that transcends the binary understanding of male and female. This identity is historically recognized within Zuni culture and plays a significant role in their spiritual and social practices, often viewed as a sacred bridge between genders.