🎡London Museums Unit 12 – Cultural Heritage: Preservation & Repatriation

What's This Unit About?

• Explores the complex issues surrounding the preservation and repatriation of cultural heritage objects in London museums
• Examines the historical context that led to many artifacts being removed from their countries of origin and housed in British institutions
• Discusses the various techniques used to preserve and conserve cultural heritage objects, as well as the challenges faced by museums in this process
• Delves into the ethical considerations surrounding the repatriation of objects, including the rights of indigenous communities and the role of museums as stewards of cultural heritage
• Analyzes case studies and controversies that highlight the complexities of repatriation, such as the Elgin Marbles and the Benin Bronzes
• Investigates the legal frameworks and policies that govern the repatriation process, both in the UK and internationally
• Assesses the impact of repatriation on museums and communities, including the potential loss of objects from museum collections and the cultural and economic benefits of returning objects to their places of origin
• Looks to the future of cultural heritage preservation and repatriation, discussing emerging trends and ongoing debates in the field

Key Concepts & Definitions

• Cultural heritage: tangible and intangible elements of a society's culture that are considered valuable and worthy of preservation for future generations
  • Tangible heritage includes physical objects such as artifacts, artworks, and buildings
  • Intangible heritage encompasses non-physical aspects of culture, such as language, music, and traditions
• Preservation: the act of protecting and maintaining cultural heritage objects to prevent deterioration and ensure their longevity
• Conservation: the process of repairing and stabilizing cultural heritage objects to prevent further damage and restore them to their original condition
• Repatriation: the return of cultural heritage objects to their country or community of origin, often after they have been removed and housed in foreign institutions
• Provenance: the history of ownership and custody of a cultural heritage object, which can be used to determine its rightful owner and place of origin
• Stewardship: the responsibility of museums and other institutions to care for and protect cultural heritage objects in their collections, often with the understanding that they hold these objects in trust for the public
• Indigenous rights: the legal and moral entitlements of indigenous communities to control and make decisions about their cultural heritage, including the right to reclaim objects that have been removed from their possession
• Cultural diplomacy: the use of cultural heritage as a means of building relationships and fostering understanding between nations and communities, often through the exchange or repatriation of objects

Historical Context

• Many cultural heritage objects in London museums were acquired during the era of British colonialism and empire, often through means that are now considered unethical or illegal
• The removal of objects from their countries of origin was justified by colonial powers as a means of preserving and studying them, but this often ignored the rights and wishes of indigenous communities
• The British Museum, in particular, has a large collection of objects acquired during this period, including the Elgin Marbles from Greece and the Benin Bronzes from Nigeria
• The repatriation movement gained momentum in the late 20th century, as former colonies gained independence and began to demand the return of their cultural heritage
• The 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property was a key moment in the history of repatriation, establishing international standards for the protection of cultural heritage
• In recent years, there has been growing pressure on museums to confront the colonial legacies of their collections and to consider repatriation as a means of addressing historical injustices
• The Black Lives Matter movement has also brought renewed attention to the issue of repatriation, highlighting the ongoing impact of colonialism and racism on communities of color

Preservation Techniques & Challenges

• Museums use a variety of techniques to preserve cultural heritage objects, including climate control, pest management, and conservation treatments
• Climate control involves maintaining stable temperature and humidity levels to prevent damage from fluctuations in the environment
  • Many objects are sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity, which can cause cracking, warping, and other forms of deterioration
• Pest management is important to prevent damage from insects and other pests that can feed on organic materials such as wood, paper, and textiles
  • Museums use a combination of physical barriers, traps, and chemical treatments to control pest populations
• Conservation treatments involve the repair and stabilization of objects that have already suffered damage, using techniques such as cleaning, consolidation, and filling
  • These treatments must be carefully planned and executed to avoid causing further harm to the object
• One of the main challenges faced by museums is the sheer volume of objects in their collections, many of which require specialized care and attention
• Another challenge is the cost of preservation and conservation, which can be prohibitively expensive for smaller institutions with limited budgets
  • Many museums rely on grants and donations to fund their preservation efforts, but these sources of funding can be unpredictable and insufficient
• The use of new technologies, such as 3D scanning and printing, offers new possibilities for preservation and access, but also raises questions about authenticity and the role of the original object

Ethical Considerations in Repatriation

• The repatriation of cultural heritage objects raises complex ethical questions about ownership, access, and the role of museums in society
• One key consideration is the rights of indigenous communities to control their own cultural heritage and to determine its fate
  • Many indigenous communities view their cultural objects as sacred or inalienable, and believe that they should be returned to their rightful owners
• Another consideration is the role of museums as stewards of cultural heritage, with a responsibility to preserve and protect objects for future generations
  • Some argue that museums have a duty to keep objects in their collections for the benefit of the public, even if they were acquired unethically
• The question of access is also important, as repatriation can sometimes result in objects being removed from public view and returned to communities that may not have the resources to properly care for them
  • However, others argue that the cultural and spiritual significance of these objects to their communities of origin should take precedence over public access
• The issue of repatriation is further complicated by the fact that many objects have complex and contested histories, with multiple communities laying claim to them
  • In some cases, repatriation may require the negotiation of competing claims and the development of collaborative solutions
• Ultimately, the ethical considerations surrounding repatriation require a balancing of different values and priorities, and a willingness to engage in difficult conversations and compromises

Case Studies & Controversies

• The Elgin Marbles, also known as the Parthenon Marbles, are a collection of classical Greek marble sculptures that were removed from the Parthenon in Athens by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century and are now housed in the British Museum
  • Greece has long demanded the return of the marbles, arguing that they are an integral part of Greek cultural heritage and were removed illegally
  • The British Museum has resisted these calls, arguing that the marbles were acquired legally and that they are better preserved and more accessible in London
• The Benin Bronzes are a collection of brass plaques and sculptures that were looted from the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria) by British soldiers in 1897
  • Many of the bronzes are now scattered across museums in Europe and the United States, with the British Museum holding the largest collection
  • Nigeria has called for the repatriation of the bronzes, arguing that they are important cultural and religious objects that were stolen as part of a punitive military expedition
  • Some museums, such as the University of Cambridge's Jesus College, have recently agreed to return their Benin Bronzes to Nigeria, while others continue to resist repatriation
• The Maori heads, or toi moko, are preserved tattooed heads of Maori individuals that were traded and collected by Europeans in the 19th century
  • The heads are considered sacred by the Maori people of New Zealand, who believe that they contain the spirit of the deceased and should be returned to their communities for proper burial
  • In recent years, many museums around the world have repatriated their toi moko to New Zealand, often in response to direct requests from Maori communities
  • However, some museums have been reluctant to return the heads, citing concerns about their preservation and the need for further research

Legal Frameworks & Policies

• The legal frameworks governing the repatriation of cultural heritage objects are complex and vary depending on the country and context
• At the international level, the 1970 UNESCO Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention provide a framework for the prevention of illicit trafficking and the return of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects
  • However, these conventions are not retroactive and do not apply to objects that were removed before their adoption
• In the UK, the legal framework for repatriation is primarily governed by the British Museum Act of 1963 and the National Heritage Act of 1983
  • These acts give the trustees of national museums the power to dispose of objects in their collections, but only in limited circumstances and with the approval of the Secretary of State
  • In practice, this means that repatriation is often difficult and requires a strong legal and moral case for the return of an object
• Many museums have developed their own policies and procedures for handling repatriation requests, often in consultation with indigenous communities and other stakeholders
  • These policies may include criteria for assessing the validity of repatriation claims, procedures for consulting with affected communities, and guidelines for the care and handling of repatriated objects
• Some museums, such as the Manchester Museum, have adopted a proactive approach to repatriation, actively seeking to identify and return objects that may have been acquired unethically
  • Others, such as the British Museum, have been more resistant to repatriation, arguing that their collections serve a broader public interest and that repatriation could set a dangerous precedent

Impact on Museums & Communities

• The repatriation of cultural heritage objects can have significant impacts on both museums and the communities that receive them
• For museums, repatriation can result in the loss of important objects from their collections, which may affect their ability to tell certain stories or attract visitors
  • Repatriation can also be costly and time-consuming, requiring significant resources to research and document the provenance of objects and to negotiate with communities
• However, repatriation can also have positive impacts on museums, by building trust and strengthening relationships with indigenous communities
  • Some museums have found that repatriation can lead to new opportunities for collaboration and co-curation with communities, resulting in more inclusive and diverse exhibitions and programs
• For communities that receive repatriated objects, the impact can be profound and transformative
  • The return of cultural heritage objects can help to restore a sense of identity and pride, and to promote the transmission of knowledge and traditions to younger generations
  • Repatriation can also have economic benefits, by attracting tourism and investment to communities and by supporting the development of cultural institutions and programs
• However, the repatriation process can also be challenging for communities, particularly if they lack the resources or expertise to properly care for and display the objects
  • In some cases, communities may need to navigate complex legal and bureaucratic processes to secure the return of their objects, which can be frustrating and time-consuming

Future Trends & Debates

• As the repatriation movement continues to gain momentum, there are several key trends and debates that are likely to shape the future of cultural heritage preservation and return
• One trend is the increasing use of digital technologies to document and share cultural heritage objects, both within museums and with communities
  • 3D scanning and printing, virtual and augmented reality, and other technologies offer new ways to create digital surrogates of objects that can be accessed and studied remotely
  • However, these technologies also raise questions about the authenticity and value of the original object, and about the potential for digital repatriation to replace physical repatriation
• Another trend is the growing recognition of the rights of indigenous communities to control and benefit from their own cultural heritage
  • This includes not only the right to physical repatriation, but also the right to intellectual property and to the economic benefits of cultural tourism and other activities
  • Some museums are exploring new models of co-ownership and co-management with indigenous communities, which could provide a more equitable and sustainable approach to cultural heritage preservation
• A key debate in the field is the question of universal museums versus cultural nationalism
  • Proponents of universal museums argue that they serve a valuable role in preserving and sharing the world's cultural heritage, and that repatriation could lead to a fragmentation and loss of knowledge
  • Proponents of cultural nationalism argue that cultural heritage objects belong to the communities that created them, and that museums have a moral obligation to return them
  • Finding a balance between these competing values will require ongoing dialogue and negotiation between museums, communities, and other stakeholders
• Ultimately, the future of cultural heritage preservation and repatriation will depend on a willingness to confront difficult histories, to listen to the voices of indigenous communities, and to develop new models of collaboration and shared stewardship.