12.1 The Decline of Neoclassicism and the Rise of Sentimentalism
5 min read•august 13, 2024
The 18th century saw a shift from to in English literature. This change reflected broader cultural trends, with writers moving away from reason and universal truths towards emotion and individual experience.
Sentimentalism emphasized feelings, intuition, and the inner lives of characters. It celebrated nature, rural life, and moral sensitivity. This movement paved the way for the novel's rise and influenced future literary developments, including Romanticism.
Neoclassicism's Decline
Challenges to Neoclassical Principles
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- The rise of individualism and subjectivity challenged the Neoclassical emphasis on reason, order, and universal truths
- Individualism prioritized personal experience and emotion over abstract principles (Rousseau's "Confessions")
- Subjectivity emphasized the importance of individual perception and interpretation (Hume's "A Treatise of Human Nature")
- The growing interest in the natural world, human emotions, and the inner lives of characters led to a shift away from the formal and artificial style of Neoclassicism
- Writers explored the beauty and complexity of nature (Thomson's "The Seasons")
- Authors delved into the psychological depths of their characters (Richardson's "")
Changing Literary Landscape
- The increasing influence of the middle class and their preference for more accessible, emotionally engaging literature contributed to the decline of Neoclassicism
- The middle class sought works that reflected their values and experiences (Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe")
- The emergence of new literary forms, such as the novel and the periodical essay, provided alternatives to the Neoclassical genres of poetry and drama
- The novel allowed for a more expansive exploration of character and society (Fielding's "Tom Jones")
- Periodical essays addressed a wide range of topics and appealed to a broader audience (Addison and Steele's "The Spectator")
- The philosophical ideas of and , which emphasized the importance of personal experience and emotion, undermined the Neoclassical reliance on abstract reason and universal principles
- Empiricism stressed the role of sensory experience in acquiring knowledge (Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding")
- Sensibility celebrated the value of emotional responsiveness and empathy (Smith's "The Theory of Moral Sentiments")
Sentimentalism's Characteristics
Emphasis on Emotion and Intuition
- Sentimentalism emphasized the importance of feeling, emotion, and intuition over reason and intellect
- Writers sought to evoke strong emotional responses in their readers (Sterne's "A Sentimental Journey")
- Intuition and instinct were seen as valuable guides to understanding the world and oneself (Rousseau's "Emile")
- The movement promoted the idea of the "man of feeling," a sensitive, empathetic individual who was attuned to the emotions of others
- Characters embodied virtues such as benevolence, compassion, and moral sensitivity (Mackenzie's "The Man of Feeling")
Themes and Subjects
- Works of Sentimentalism often explored themes of love, friendship, family, and the inner lives of characters
- Authors examined the complexities of human relationships and the bonds of affection (Richardson's "Clarissa")
- The movement celebrated the natural world and the beauty of rural life, often contrasting it with the corruption and artificiality of urban society
- Nature was seen as a source of inspiration and moral guidance (Goldsmith's "The Deserted Village")
- Rural life was idealized as a haven of simplicity and virtue (Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard")
- Sentimentalist literature frequently featured characters who embodied virtue, benevolence, and moral sensitivity
- Protagonists often served as models of ethical behavior and emotional authenticity (Burney's "Evelina")
Style and Technique
- Sentimentalist writers employed a more accessible, emotionally engaging style, using simple language and vivid imagery to evoke strong feelings in readers
- Authors used vivid descriptions and sensory details to immerse readers in the emotional experiences of characters (Radcliffe's "The Mysteries of Udolpho")
- Simple, direct language made works more accessible to a wider audience (Goldsmith's "The Vicar of Wakefield")
Literary Tastes' Shift
Changing Reader Preferences
- The mid-18th century saw a gradual move away from the formal, elevated style of Neoclassicism towards a more natural, emotionally expressive mode of writing
- Readers increasingly sought literature that spoke to their personal experiences and emotions, rather than works that adhered to strict classical rules and conventions
- The growing popularity of the novel, with its focus on character development and psychological realism, reflected the changing tastes of the reading public
- Novels allowed readers to identify with characters and explore their inner lives (Richardson's "Pamela")
- The emergence of the periodical essay, exemplified by the works of and , demonstrated a new interest in exploring the everyday lives and concerns of ordinary people
- Periodical essays addressed topics relevant to the growing middle class (Addison and Steele's "")
Cultural and Philosophical Influences
- The shift in literary sensibilities was influenced by broader cultural and philosophical changes, such as the rise of empiricism, the growth of the middle class, and the increasing emphasis on individual experience and sentiment
- Empiricism encouraged a focus on sensory experience and personal observation (Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding")
- The expanding middle class sought literature that reflected their values and aspirations (Defoe's "Moll Flanders")
- The emphasis on individual experience and sentiment prioritized personal feelings and perspectives (Sterne's "Tristram Shandy")
Sentimentalism's Impact on English Literature
Influence on the Novel
- The rise of Sentimentalism paved the way for the development of the novel as a major literary form, with its emphasis on character, emotion, and psychological depth
- Sentimentalist themes and techniques influenced the works of major 18th-century novelists, such as , Henry Fielding, and Laurence Sterne
- Richardson's novels explored the inner lives and moral dilemmas of his characters (Richardson's "Clarissa")
- Fielding's works blended Sentimentalist elements with social satire and humor (Fielding's "Joseph Andrews")
- Sterne's experimental novels pushed the boundaries of the genre and emphasized subjective experience (Sterne's "Tristram Shandy")
Anticipation of Romanticism
- The movement's celebration of feeling and intuition anticipated the Romantic emphasis on imagination, individuality, and the sublime
- Sentimentalism's focus on the inner lives of characters and the exploration of personal experience contributed to the development of psychological realism in literature
- The Romantic poets built upon Sentimentalist themes of nature, emotion, and introspection (Wordsworth's "Lyrical Ballads")
Democratization of Literature
- The popularity of Sentimentalist literature helped to democratize reading and writing, making literature more accessible to a wider range of people
- The emphasis on accessible language and relatable themes encouraged a broader readership (Goldsmith's "The Vicar of Wakefield")
- The growth of the publishing industry and the expansion of literacy rates supported the dissemination of Sentimentalist works (Richardson's "Pamela")
Social and Moral Impact
- The Sentimentalist emphasis on moral sensitivity and benevolence influenced the development of social reform movements and philanthropic efforts in the late 18th and early 19th centuries
- Sentimentalist literature promoted empathy and compassion for the less fortunate (Mackenzie's "The Man of Feeling")
- The movement's celebration of virtue and inspired efforts to improve social conditions and alleviate suffering (Hanway's "A Sentimental History of Chimney Sweepers")
Key Terms to Review (34)
Addison and Steele's The Spectator: The Spectator is a daily publication founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in 1711, known for its essays that explored social issues, manners, and the emerging modern sensibilities of the time. It marked a shift from the rigid forms of Neoclassicism to more personal and emotional expressions in literature, reflecting the rise of sentimentalism as it sought to connect with readers on an emotional level while promoting moral improvement and social critique.
Burney's Evelina: Burney's Evelina is a novel published in 1778 by Frances Burney that follows the life and experiences of a young woman named Evelina Anville as she navigates society and her own identity. This work is significant as it embodies the transition from Neoclassicism, with its focus on reason and formality, to Sentimentalism, which emphasizes emotion, individual experience, and the moral implications of social interactions.
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe: Defoe's Robinson Crusoe is a novel published in 1719 that tells the story of a man shipwrecked on a deserted island for 28 years, exploring themes of survival, self-sufficiency, and colonialism. The novel marked a significant shift in literature as it paved the way for the rise of sentimentalism, moving away from the rigid structures of neoclassicism and instead focusing on personal emotion and individual experience.
Empiricism: Empiricism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge gained through sensory experience and evidence rather than through intuition or abstract reasoning. This method of understanding the world is foundational to the scientific method and has influenced various fields, including literature, as it encourages observation, experimentation, and the questioning of established beliefs.
Fielding's Tom Jones: Fielding's Tom Jones is a novel published in 1749 that follows the adventures of its titular character, an orphan named Tom Jones, as he navigates love, identity, and societal expectations. The novel represents a shift from neoclassical ideals towards more sentimental and emotional storytelling, reflecting the complexities of human nature and morality.
Formality vs. spontaneity: Formality and spontaneity represent two contrasting approaches to artistic expression, with formality emphasizing structured, rule-based creation while spontaneity embraces a more natural, instinctual style. These concepts are pivotal in understanding the shift from the rigid conventions of Neoclassicism to the more emotional and free-spirited expressions of Sentimentalism. The tension between these two styles reflects broader cultural shifts towards individualism and emotional authenticity.
Goldsmith's The Deserted Village: Goldsmith's The Deserted Village is a poignant poem published in 1770 that reflects on the loss of rural life and the impact of social and economic changes in England. The poem captures the themes of nostalgia, loss, and the contrast between the idyllic past and the harsh realities of modernity, showcasing the decline of traditional village life due to urbanization and the pursuit of wealth.
Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield: Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield is a sentimental novel published in 1766, focusing on the life of Dr. Charles Primrose, a kind-hearted vicar, and his family's trials and tribulations. This work marks a shift from the rigid structures of Neoclassicism to a more emotional and relatable narrative style, emphasizing feelings and moral integrity over strict adherence to classical forms.
Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard: Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard is a poignant poem by Thomas Gray that reflects on mortality, the common man's life, and the inevitable passage of time. This work stands out as a significant bridge between the declining neoclassical ideals, which favored reason and order, and the rise of sentimentalism that emphasized emotion and individual experience.
Human Emotion: Human emotion refers to the complex psychological state that involves subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral or expressive response. Emotions are essential to human experience, influencing behavior, decision-making, and interpersonal relationships. In literature, the exploration of human emotion marks a significant shift from the rational ideals of previous literary movements to a focus on personal feelings and connections.
Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature: Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature is a foundational philosophical work published in 1739-1740 that seeks to explain human psychology, emotions, and the nature of knowledge. The text marks a shift from the rationalism of Neoclassicism to a more empathetic understanding of human behavior, highlighting the importance of feelings and sentiments in moral reasoning.
Joseph Addison: Joseph Addison was an English essayist, poet, and playwright best known for co-founding the periodical 'The Spectator' in 1711. His work marked a significant shift in literature, helping to establish the periodical essay as a popular literary form and influencing public discourse in England through insightful commentary on society, manners, and morals.
Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a foundational philosophical work published in 1689 that explores the nature of human knowledge and understanding. In this essay, Locke argues that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth, and all knowledge comes from experience and sensory perception, challenging the dominant rationalist views of his time. This shift in perspective significantly influenced both Enlightenment thought and the rise of sentimentalism by emphasizing human experience and emotion over strict reason.
Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling: Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling is a seminal novel published in 1771 that represents a shift from the rationality of Neoclassicism to the emotional depth of Sentimentalism. The story follows the character of Harley, a man deeply sensitive to the feelings of others, illustrating the value of empathy and compassion in human relationships. This work reflects the changing attitudes toward emotion and morality during a period where literature began to embrace the inner emotional life of individuals over strict adherence to reason and social decorum.
Moral improvement: Moral improvement refers to the process of enhancing one's ethical and moral understanding, often through self-reflection, empathy, and the cultivation of virtues. This concept is particularly relevant in literature as it embodies the shift from the rigid structures of Neoclassicism, which emphasized reason and order, to the more emotive and individual-focused approach of Sentimentalism, highlighting personal growth and emotional depth.
Moral sentiment: Moral sentiment refers to the emotional responses and feelings that arise from our judgments about right and wrong, guiding our ethical behaviors and social interactions. This concept emphasizes the importance of empathy and shared human experiences in moral decision-making, contrasting with the strict rationalism of earlier philosophical traditions. It plays a significant role in the shift from neoclassicism, which focused on reason and order, to sentimentalism, which valued emotional depth and individual experience.
Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism is a literary and artistic movement that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, characterized by a revival of classical ideals from Ancient Greece and Rome. It emphasizes reason, order, and harmony, reflecting the belief in rationality and the value of classical works as models for contemporary creativity.
Pamela: Pamela is a groundbreaking novel by Samuel Richardson, published in 1740, often regarded as one of the first modern novels. It tells the story of a young servant girl, Pamela Andrews, who resists her master's advances and ultimately seeks to maintain her virtue, reflecting the social and moral issues of the time. The novel played a crucial role in shaping the development of the novel as a literary genre and marked a significant transition from reason-based literature to a focus on emotional experiences.
Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho: Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho is a gothic novel published in 1794, known for its vivid descriptions and exploration of emotion and terror. It marks a significant shift from the rationalism of Neoclassicism to the more emotional and subjective themes found in Sentimentalism, reflecting the changing attitudes towards human experience and the complexities of emotion during this time.
Reason vs. Emotion: Reason vs. Emotion refers to the philosophical and literary conflict between rational thought and emotional experience. In various contexts, this dichotomy explores how human beings navigate their understanding of the world, often debating whether actions should be guided by logic or feelings. This tension is especially significant as it reflects shifts in thought from valuing rationality during one period to emphasizing emotional depth in another.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan: Richard Brinsley Sheridan was an influential Irish playwright, poet, and politician known for his contributions to the theatrical landscape of the late 18th century. His works, particularly 'The School for Scandal' and 'The Rivals,' showcase a shift away from strict Neoclassical ideals towards a more sentimental and character-driven style, reflecting the broader cultural transition of the time.
Richard Steele: Richard Steele was an influential Irish writer and politician of the early 18th century, best known for co-founding the periodical essays 'The Tatler' and 'The Spectator'. His work in these publications played a key role in the development of the periodical essay as a distinct literary form, shaping public discourse and opinion while also bridging the gap between Restoration comedy and the emerging sentimental style.
Richardson's Clarissa: Richardson's Clarissa is a groundbreaking novel by Samuel Richardson, published in 1748, which tells the tragic story of a young woman named Clarissa Harlowe and her struggle against societal pressures and personal dilemmas. This work marks a significant shift from Neoclassical ideals to a focus on individual emotions, moral complexity, and the importance of personal integrity, reflecting the rise of sentimentalism in literature.
Rousseau's Confessions: Rousseau's Confessions is an autobiographical work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, published posthumously in 1782. It marks a significant shift in literature, emphasizing personal emotion and individual experience, which contrasts with the rationalism of Neoclassicism. This work is considered a precursor to modern autobiography and explores the complexity of human nature, reflecting the rise of Sentimentalism that focuses on feeling and subjectivity.
Rousseau's Emile: Rousseau's Emile, or On Education, is a seminal work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau published in 1762 that outlines his philosophy of education and human development. In this work, Rousseau emphasizes the importance of nurturing a child's innate goodness and natural instincts, promoting an educational approach that contrasts sharply with the rigid structures of traditional education. His ideas signal a shift away from Neoclassicism, focusing instead on sentimentalism and the emotional and moral growth of individuals.
Samuel Richardson: Samuel Richardson was an English novelist and printer, best known for his pioneering role in the development of the novel as a literary form in the early 18th century. His works, particularly 'Pamela' and 'Clarissa', emphasized detailed character development and explored complex human emotions, setting a foundation for the shift from reason to emotional depth in literature.
Sensibility: Sensibility refers to the capacity to appreciate and respond to complex emotional experiences, emphasizing empathy and the importance of feelings in human interactions. This concept emerged as a reaction against the rigid structures of Neoclassicism, which prioritized reason and order, paving the way for sentimentalism that valued emotional depth and individual experience.
Sentimental comedy: Sentimental comedy is a theatrical genre that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, characterized by its focus on emotional appeal, virtue, and moral lessons, often contrasting with the earlier Restoration comedies that prioritized wit and social satire. This genre sought to evoke genuine feelings from the audience, encouraging empathy and reflection on human behavior and ethics, which marked a shift in the nature of comedic storytelling.
Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism is a literary movement that emphasizes emotion, empathy, and the exploration of human feelings over rationality and intellect. It reflects a shift towards valuing emotional experiences, often portraying characters in situations that evoke deep emotional responses from readers, leading to a focus on morality and virtue.
Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments: Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments is a philosophical work by Adam Smith, published in 1759, that explores the nature of morality and human emotions. It argues that moral judgments arise from the feelings of sympathy and empathy that people have toward one another, laying the groundwork for the development of modern ethical theory and influencing sentimentalism in literature.
Sterne's A Sentimental Journey: Sterne's A Sentimental Journey is a novel written by Laurence Sterne, published in 1768, that reflects the transition from the rigid ideals of Neoclassicism to the more emotional and individualistic approach of Sentimentalism. This work is characterized by its exploration of human emotions, the importance of personal experiences, and a focus on the subjective perception of reality, which contrasts sharply with the structured formality of Neoclassical literature.
The School for Scandal: The School for Scandal is a comedic play written by Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1777, which critiques the moral hypocrisy of high society through its portrayal of scandal and gossip. The play is a prime example of Restoration comedy, blending wit and social commentary while paving the way for the emergence of sentimental comedy, highlighting themes such as reputation, deception, and the complexities of human relationships.
The Tatler: The Tatler was a pioneering periodical founded in 1709 by Richard Steele, focusing on various aspects of contemporary life, culture, and manners in early 18th-century England. It played a crucial role in the rise of the periodical essay as a literary form and reflected the political, social, and intellectual changes of its time.
Thomson's The Seasons: Thomson's The Seasons is a poetic work by James Thomson, published in 1728, that reflects the changing aspects of nature throughout the year. This poem marks a significant shift from the rigid structures of Neoclassicism to the more emotional and nature-focused themes characteristic of Sentimentalism, capturing the beauty and emotional resonance of each season in vivid detail.