11.3 The Rise of Bourgeois Tragedy: George Lillo's 'The London Merchant'
4 min read•august 13, 2024
The early 18th century saw the rise of , a new genre focusing on middle-class characters and their moral struggles. This shift reflected the growing influence of the merchant class and changing social dynamics in England.
's '' exemplifies this genre, telling the story of an apprentice's downfall due to temptation. The play explores themes of virtue, vice, and personal responsibility, mirroring the values and concerns of the emerging middle class.
Bourgeois Tragedy: A New Genre
Emergence and Characteristics
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- Bourgeois tragedy emerged as a new theatrical genre in the early 18th century focusing on the lives and struggles of middle-class characters rather than the aristocracy or royalty
- The genre aimed to evoke sympathy and moral reflection in the audience by depicting relatable characters facing moral dilemmas and the consequences of their actions
- Bourgeois tragedy emphasized the importance of virtue, hard work, and the dangers of temptation and vice reflecting the values and concerns of the growing middle class
- Marked a departure from the heroic and aristocratic themes of earlier tragedies signaling a shift in the focus and purpose of English theatre
Social and Economic Influences
- The rise of the middle class and the growth of commerce and trade in the early 18th century contributed to the development of bourgeois tragedy as a genre that reflected the changing social and economic landscape
- Increasing social and economic influence of the merchant class
- Rapid urban expansion and the challenges it presented (London)
- Reflected the growing influence and self-awareness of the middle class and its desire for theatrical representations that spoke to its own experiences and values
- Demonstrated the potential for theatre to engage with contemporary social and moral issues and serve as a vehicle for public discourse and reflection
The London Merchant: Plot, Characters, and Themes
Plot Summary
- Tells the story of George Barnwell, a young apprentice who is seduced by the prostitute Sarah Millwood and persuaded to steal money from his master leading to his moral downfall and eventual execution
- Tragic ending, with Barnwell's execution and Millwood's unrepentant defiance, serves as a warning and a call for moral vigilance in the face of temptation and vice
Central Characters
- George Barnwell: The naive and easily tempted apprentice
- Sarah Millwood: The manipulative and amoral prostitute who seduces Barnwell
- Thorowgood: Barnwell's kind and virtuous master who serves as a moral counterpoint
- Virtuous female characters who contrast with Millwood and represent ideal moral behavior
Key Themes
- Dangers of temptation and the importance of virtue
- Corrupting influence of money and desire
- Consequences of moral transgression
- Personal responsibility in the face of moral challenges
- Exploitation of women and the changing roles and expectations of women in the period
Lillo's Play: Reflecting Social Change
Depicting the Merchant Class
- Reflects the growing importance of commerce and trade in early 18th-century England with its focus on the lives of merchants, apprentices, and other middle-class characters
- Portrays the merchant class and their values, such as hard work, frugality, and integrity reflecting their increasing social and economic influence
Urban Challenges and Temptations
- Depicts the challenges and temptations faced by young men in the rapidly expanding urban environment of London where opportunities for both success and moral corruption were abundant
- Vulnerabilities of young men in the city
- Abundance of temptations and vices
- Critiques the corrupting influence of money and desire reflecting the anxieties and concerns of a society grappling with the effects of rapid economic change and social mobility
Changing Gender Roles
- Addresses the changing roles and expectations of women in the period
- Depiction of the fallen woman Sarah Millwood
- Virtuous female characters who serve as moral counterpoints
- Highlights the exploitation of women and the challenges they faced in a patriarchal society
Bourgeois Tragedy: Significance in English Theatre
Shifting Focus and Themes
- Marked a significant shift in English theatre by moving away from the heroic and aristocratic themes of earlier tragedies and focusing on the lives and struggles of middle-class characters
- Reflected the growing influence and self-awareness of the middle class and its desire for theatrical representations that spoke to its own experiences and values
Paving the Way for Future Developments
- Demonstrated the potential for theatre to engage with contemporary social and moral issues and serve as a vehicle for public discourse and reflection
- Success of bourgeois tragedy paved the way for further experimentation and diversification in English theatre
- Exploration of a wider range of subjects, characters, and dramatic forms
- Development of domestic and social dramas throughout the 18th and 19th centuries
Enduring Legacy
- The legacy of bourgeois tragedy can be seen in the continued development of domestic and social dramas throughout the 18th and 19th centuries
- Enduring interest in plays that explore the moral and psychological dimensions of everyday life
- Influence on later playwrights and the evolution of English theatre
Key Terms to Review (17)
Aphra Behn: Aphra Behn was a pioneering English playwright, poet, and novelist of the Restoration period, recognized as one of the first professional female writers in England. She broke social norms by asserting her voice in a male-dominated literary world and is celebrated for her contributions to early novel writing and feminist literature.
Bourgeois tragedy: Bourgeois tragedy is a genre of drama that emerged in the early 18th century, focusing on the lives and struggles of the middle class rather than the nobility. This type of tragedy emphasizes moral dilemmas and personal conflicts, often highlighting themes such as social mobility, emotional suffering, and the consequences of choices made by ordinary people. It reflects a shift in societal values, showcasing the experiences of the bourgeoisie in a way that was relatable and impactful.
Class conflict: Class conflict refers to the tensions and struggles between different social classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie (the middle and upper classes) and the proletariat (the working class). This concept highlights the economic and social disparities that can lead to power struggles, often reflected in literature and art. It plays a significant role in exploring themes of social inequality and moral dilemmas across various forms of artistic expression.
Emotional appeal: Emotional appeal is a rhetorical strategy that aims to persuade an audience by evoking strong feelings, such as sympathy, fear, or joy. This technique engages the audience's emotions, making them more receptive to the message being communicated. In literature and drama, emotional appeal often drives character development and audience connection, enhancing themes of morality, personal struggle, and human experience.
Empiricism: Empiricism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge gained through sensory experience and evidence rather than through intuition or abstract reasoning. This method of understanding the world is foundational to the scientific method and has influenced various fields, including literature, as it encourages observation, experimentation, and the questioning of established beliefs.
Enlightenment thought: Enlightenment thought refers to a philosophical movement in the late 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. This movement encouraged critical thinking and the pursuit of knowledge, which led to significant developments in literature, politics, and science. The principles of enlightenment thought influenced public discourse and opinion through the rise of periodical essays and shaped new forms of tragedy in literature that reflected societal changes.
George Lillo: George Lillo was an influential English playwright and the author of 'The London Merchant', a pioneering work in the genre of bourgeois tragedy. His writing marked a shift towards the exploration of the lives and struggles of the middle class, moving away from the noble characters typical in earlier tragedies. Lillo's works reflect societal changes during the Restoration and early 18th century, illustrating the complexities of human emotion and morality in everyday life.
Industrialization: Industrialization is the process of transforming economies from primarily agrarian-based systems to ones dominated by manufacturing and industry. This shift typically involves technological advancements, the establishment of factories, and the movement of labor from rural to urban areas, significantly impacting social structures and cultural norms.
Marxist Literary Criticism: Marxist literary criticism is an approach that analyzes literature based on the socio-economic contexts in which it is produced, focusing on the relationships between class structures, power dynamics, and economic systems. It highlights how literature reflects and influences social change, often critiquing the values of capitalism and exploring themes of class struggle, oppression, and ideology. This perspective connects deeply with works that emerge from or depict the bourgeois experience, as seen in the rise of bourgeois tragedy.
Moral instruction: Moral instruction refers to the teaching of ethical principles and values through literature, encouraging readers to reflect on their behavior and the consequences of their actions. This concept is central to various literary forms, as it helps shape societal norms and personal morals, often presenting characters facing moral dilemmas that illustrate broader ethical lessons.
New Historicism: New Historicism is a literary theory that emerged in the late 20th century, emphasizing the importance of historical context and the interplay between literature and the cultural, social, and political circumstances of its time. This approach focuses on understanding how texts reflect and shape the beliefs, values, and power structures of their specific historical moments.
Realism: Realism is a literary movement that seeks to depict life accurately and truthfully, focusing on everyday activities and experiences without idealization or exaggeration. This approach emphasizes the portrayal of ordinary characters and events, reflecting social issues and the complexities of human nature. By presenting a detailed and unembellished view of reality, realism encourages readers to engage with authentic experiences, often highlighting the struggles and triumphs of common people.
The everyman: The everyman is a literary character that represents the common person, embodying universal traits and experiences that resonate with a wide audience. This character often faces moral dilemmas and personal challenges, making them relatable and accessible to readers, which is crucial in bourgeois tragedy where social issues and individual struggles are highlighted.
The London Merchant: The London Merchant is a bourgeois tragedy written by George Lillo in 1731, portraying the moral struggles of a merchant caught between social ambition and ethical dilemmas. This play marks a significant shift in drama from the high-born characters of Restoration comedy to the more relatable and realistic portrayal of middle-class figures, thus helping to lay the foundation for sentimental comedy and bourgeois tragedy.
The Rover: The Rover is a comedic play written by Aphra Behn, first performed in 1677, which explores themes of love, desire, and the complexities of gender relations in a libertine society. Set during the Carnival in Naples, the play showcases characters navigating the intricacies of romance and deception, reflecting broader social and political changes of the Restoration period. The play's bold exploration of female agency and sexuality was significant at a time when women's roles were largely confined to traditional expectations.
The tragic hero: A tragic hero is a literary character who makes a judgment error that inevitably leads to their own destruction. This character often possesses noble qualities and a tragic flaw, which contributes to their downfall, eliciting both pity and fear from the audience. In bourgeois tragedy, this concept is adapted to reflect the lives of ordinary people, connecting their struggles to larger societal themes.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, often resulting from the movement of people from rural to urban environments. This phenomenon leads to the growth of cities and the transformation of societal structures, economies, and cultural practices, reflecting significant changes in lifestyle and social dynamics.