📖Restoration Literature Unit 1 – Restoration Era: Historical Context

Historical Background

• The Restoration period in England began in 1660 with the restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II following the English Civil War and the Interregnum
• Marked a significant shift from the strict Puritan rule of the Commonwealth period under Oliver Cromwell to a more relaxed and pleasure-seeking society
• Characterized by a reaction against the austerity and religious fervor of the previous decades
• Witnessed a resurgence of the arts, particularly in the fields of theater, literature, and music
• Saw the reopening of theaters, which had been closed during the Puritan era, leading to a flourishing of dramatic works
• Marked by a growing interest in scientific inquiry and empirical observation, laying the foundation for the Age of Enlightenment
• Experienced a period of relative political stability, although tensions between the monarchy and Parliament persisted

Key Political Events

• The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 with the return of King Charles II from exile in France
• The Clarendon Code, a series of laws passed in the 1660s that aimed to restore the supremacy of the Church of England and restrict religious nonconformity
  • Included the Corporation Act (1661), the Act of Uniformity (1662), the Conventicle Act (1664), and the Five Mile Act (1665)
• The Great Plague of London (1665-1666), which killed an estimated 100,000 people and had significant social and economic consequences
• The Great Fire of London (1666), which destroyed much of the city and led to a period of rebuilding and modernization
• The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667), a naval conflict between England and the Dutch Republic, which ended in a Dutch victory and a blow to English prestige
• The Treaty of Dover (1670), a secret agreement between Charles II and Louis XIV of France, which promised English support for French expansionism in exchange for financial assistance
• The Popish Plot (1678), a fictitious conspiracy alleging a Catholic plot to assassinate Charles II, which led to anti-Catholic hysteria and political turmoil
• The Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681), a political crisis centered around attempts to exclude Charles II's Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, from the line of succession

Social and Cultural Shifts

• The Restoration saw a relaxation of the strict moral codes enforced during the Puritan era, leading to a more permissive and pleasure-seeking society
• The reopening of theaters and the revival of drama led to the development of new dramatic genres, such as the comedy of manners, which satirized the fashions and foibles of the upper classes
• The rise of the coffeehouse as a center of social interaction, intellectual exchange, and political debate
  • Coffeehouses became popular gathering places for writers, artists, politicians, and scientists to discuss ideas and share knowledge
• The growth of print culture and the increasing availability of books, pamphlets, and periodicals, which facilitated the spread of ideas and information
• The emergence of new fashions and styles, particularly in clothing and architecture, which reflected the tastes and values of the Restoration court
• The increasing influence of French culture and manners on English society, as many royalists had spent time in exile in France during the Interregnum
• The development of new forms of entertainment, such as the pleasure garden and the masquerade ball, which catered to the tastes of the urban elite

Economic Changes

• The Restoration period saw a gradual shift towards a more mercantile and commercial economy, with the growth of trade, finance, and manufacturing
• The expansion of overseas trade, particularly with the colonies in North America and the West Indies, which provided new markets for English goods and raw materials for industry
• The establishment of the Royal African Company (1672), which held a monopoly on the English slave trade and played a significant role in the development of the Atlantic slave trade
• The growth of the textile industry, particularly in wool and silk production, which became an important source of wealth and employment
• The increasing use of coal as a fuel source, which facilitated the growth of industries such as glassmaking, brewing, and metalworking
• The development of new financial institutions, such as the Bank of England (1694), which provided a stable system of credit and helped to finance government borrowing
• The rise of the professional classes, such as lawyers, doctors, and civil servants, who benefited from the growth of the state bureaucracy and the expansion of education

Religious Developments

• The Restoration of the monarchy also brought about the restoration of the Church of England as the official state church
• The Clarendon Code sought to enforce religious uniformity and suppress nonconformist religious groups, such as Puritans, Quakers, and Baptists
• The Act of Uniformity (1662) required all clergy to adhere to the Book of Common Prayer and renounce the Solemn League and Covenant, leading to the ejection of nearly 2,000 nonconformist ministers from their parishes
• The persecution of religious dissenters led to the development of underground religious networks and the growth of religious toleration as a political issue
• The reign of James II (1685-1688) saw a brief period of religious toleration, as the Catholic king issued the Declaration of Indulgence (1687) granting freedom of worship to Catholics and nonconformists
• The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) saw the overthrow of James II and the ascension of the Protestant monarchs William III and Mary II, leading to the Toleration Act (1689) which granted limited religious freedom to nonconformists
• The late 17th century saw the rise of latitudinarianism within the Church of England, which emphasized reason, moderation, and moral conduct over strict adherence to doctrine

Scientific and Intellectual Advancements

• The Restoration period witnessed significant advancements in science, mathematics, and philosophy, laying the foundation for the Age of Enlightenment
• The establishment of the Royal Society (1660) provided a forum for the exchange of scientific ideas and the promotion of experimental research
  • Notable members included Robert Boyle, Christopher Wren, and Isaac Newton
• The publication of Robert Boyle's "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661) challenged the traditional Aristotelian view of the four elements and laid the foundation for modern chemistry
• The development of the microscope by Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek opened up new avenues of biological research and led to the discovery of microorganisms
• Isaac Newton's groundbreaking work in mathematics, optics, and physics, including the publication of his "Principia Mathematica" (1687), which laid the foundation for classical mechanics
• The rise of empiricism and the scientific method, which emphasized observation, experimentation, and rational inquiry over traditional authority and superstition
• The growth of public interest in science and technology, as evidenced by the popularity of public lectures, demonstrations, and exhibitions
• The increasing influence of Enlightenment ideas, such as the belief in progress, reason, and individual liberty, which challenged traditional social and political hierarchies

Literary Trends and Influences

• The Restoration period saw a revival of literary activity, particularly in the fields of drama, poetry, and prose
• The reopening of the theaters in 1660 led to a flourishing of dramatic works, including the comedies of William Wycherley, George Etherege, and William Congreve, which satirized the manners and morals of Restoration society
• The development of the heroic drama, a genre of play that celebrated the ideals of honor, courage, and love, as exemplified by the works of John Dryden
• The rise of the novel as a literary form, with early examples including Aphra Behn's "Oroonoko" (1688) and William Congreve's "Incognita" (1692)
• The popularity of satirical poetry, particularly the works of John Dryden and Samuel Butler, which mocked the follies and vices of Restoration society
• The influence of French literary models, particularly the works of Molière and Racine, on English drama and poetry
• The growth of literary patronage, as writers sought the support of wealthy aristocrats and royalty to finance their work
• The increasing importance of the reading public, as literacy rates rose and the print industry expanded, leading to the development of new genres such as the periodical essay

Important Figures of the Era

• King Charles II (1630-1685), the restored monarch whose reign was marked by a revival of the arts and a relaxation of Puritan moral codes
• John Milton (1608-1674), a poet and polemicist whose epic poem "Paradise Lost" (1667) is considered one of the greatest works of English literature
• John Dryden (1631-1700), a poet, playwright, and critic who dominated the literary scene of the Restoration period and established the heroic couplet as the standard form of English poetry
• Aphra Behn (1640-1689), a prolific playwright, poet, and novelist who was one of the first English women to earn a living by writing and is considered a pioneering figure in the development of the novel
• Samuel Pepys (1633-1703), a naval administrator and Member of Parliament whose detailed diary provides a vivid account of life in Restoration London, including eyewitness accounts of the Great Plague and the Great Fire
• Isaac Newton (1643-1727), a mathematician, physicist, and astronomer whose groundbreaking work in optics, mechanics, and calculus laid the foundation for modern science
• Robert Boyle (1627-1691), a natural philosopher and chemist whose work on the properties of gases and the nature of matter helped to establish the experimental method in science
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), a philosopher whose work "Leviathan" (1651) argued for the necessity of absolute sovereign power to maintain social order and prevent civil war
• John Locke (1632-1704), a philosopher whose ideas on natural rights, social contract theory, and the separation of church and state had a profound influence on the development of liberal political thought