1.9 Cleanth Brooks

Cleanth Brooks, a key figure in New Criticism, championed close reading and the analysis of literary works as self-contained objects. He emphasized the importance of paradox, irony, and tension in poetry, arguing that these elements create complex meanings within texts.

Brooks' approach to literary criticism focused on the intrinsic qualities of literature, avoiding biographical or historical context. His concept of the "well-wrought urn" metaphor highlighted the idea of a poem as a carefully crafted, unified whole with interconnected elements.

New criticism principles

• New Criticism emerged in the mid-20th century as a formalist movement in literary theory that emphasized close reading of the text itself
• Proponents of New Criticism believed that the meaning of a literary work could be found through careful analysis of its language, structure, and themes, without relying on external factors such as the author's biography or historical context
• New Critics sought to establish a more objective and rigorous approach to literary interpretation, focusing on the intrinsic qualities of the text rather than the reader's subjective response or the author's intended meaning

Close reading techniques

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• Close reading involves carefully examining the language, imagery, and structure of a text to uncover its meaning and significance
• New Critics pay attention to elements such as diction, syntax, metaphor, and symbol, analyzing how these literary devices contribute to the overall meaning of the work
• Close reading also involves considering the relationships between different parts of the text, such as the interplay between form and content or the tension between opposing themes
• New Critics often engage in multiple readings of a text, each time focusing on a different aspect or level of meaning (e.g., literal, figurative, symbolic)

Intentional fallacy avoidance

• The intentional fallacy refers to the belief that the author's intended meaning is the only valid interpretation of a literary work
• New Critics argue that once a work is published, it stands on its own and should be interpreted based on the evidence within the text itself, not the author's stated or implied intentions
• Avoiding the intentional fallacy allows readers to discover meanings and significances that may not have been consciously intended by the author but are nonetheless present in the text

Affective fallacy avoidance

• The affective fallacy refers to the belief that the reader's emotional response to a literary work is the primary criterion for evaluating its merit or meaning
• New Critics maintain that the reader's subjective feelings should not be the basis for literary interpretation, as they can vary widely from person to person and do not necessarily reflect the inherent qualities of the text
• Avoiding the affective fallacy ensures that literary analysis remains focused on the text itself, rather than the idiosyncratic reactions of individual readers

Paradox in poetry

• Paradox is a central concern in New Criticism, as it is seen as a key to unlocking the complex meanings and tensions within a literary work
• New Critics view paradox not as a logical contradiction but as a productive tension between seemingly opposed or incompatible elements within a text
• Paradox can take many forms in poetry, such as the juxtaposition of conflicting images, the use of oxymoron (e.g., "sweet sorrow"), or the exploration of existential dilemmas

Paradox vs ambiguity

• While paradox and ambiguity are related concepts, they are distinct in New Criticism
• Paradox involves the coexistence of apparently contradictory elements that nonetheless contribute to a unified meaning
• Ambiguity, on the other hand, refers to the presence of multiple, potentially conflicting interpretations of a text, without necessarily resolving them into a single, paradoxical meaning

Paradox as key to meaning

• For New Critics, paradox is not simply a rhetorical device but a fundamental aspect of the human condition and the nature of reality
• By embracing and exploring paradox, poets can capture the complexity and mystery of existence in a way that transcends logical or rational understanding
• Paradox can also serve as a means of challenging readers' assumptions and inviting them to engage more deeply with the text and its implications

Paradox examples in poems

• In John Donne's "Holy Sonnet 14," the speaker paradoxically calls upon God to "batter my heart" and "overthrow" him, suggesting that violence and surrender are necessary for spiritual awakening
• William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" explores the paradox of childhood innocence and adult disillusionment, as the speaker grapples with the loss of his youthful vision
• Emily Dickinson's "My Life had stood - a Loaded Gun" presents a complex paradox of power and vulnerability, as the speaker compares herself to a weapon that is both dangerous and dependent on an external "Owner" for its identity

Irony in poetry

• Irony is another important element in New Criticism, as it can create complex meanings and tensions within a literary work
• New Critics distinguish between different types of irony, each of which operates in a distinct way to shape the reader's interpretation of the text
• Irony can be used to create a sense of distance or detachment, to undermine or subvert conventional expectations, or to highlight the gap between appearance and reality

Verbal irony

• Verbal irony occurs when a speaker says one thing but means the opposite, often for satirical or humorous effect
• In poetry, verbal irony can be used to create a sense of ambiguity or uncertainty, as the reader must infer the speaker's true meaning from the context and tone of the utterance
• An example of verbal irony can be found in Andrew Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress," where the speaker's elaborate praise of his lover's beauty is undercut by his ultimately cynical argument for seizing the day

Situational irony

• Situational irony arises when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually occurs, often with a surprising or paradoxical outcome
• In poetry, situational irony can be used to challenge readers' assumptions or expectations, revealing the complexity and unpredictability of human experience
• An example of situational irony can be found in Thomas Hardy's "The Convergence of the Twain," which describes the tragic meeting of the Titanic and the iceberg as a kind of cosmic inevitability, rather than a mere accident

Dramatic irony

• Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or reader knows something that the characters in the text do not, creating a sense of tension or anticipation
• In poetry, dramatic irony can be used to create a sense of pathos or tragedy, as the reader witnesses the characters' actions and fates with a fuller understanding of their significance
• An example of dramatic irony can be found in Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess," where the reader gradually realizes the sinister implications of the Duke's monologue, even as he remains oblivious to his own cruelty and possessiveness

Well-wrought urn concept

• The "well-wrought urn" is a central metaphor in New Criticism, representing the idea of the poem as a self-contained, carefully crafted object
• Just as an urn is a beautiful and intricate work of art, shaped by the skill and vision of its creator, so too is a poem a complex and unified structure, whose meaning emerges from the interplay of its various elements
• The well-wrought urn concept emphasizes the importance of form, structure, and language in shaping the meaning and impact of a literary work

Poem as self-contained object

• New Critics view the poem as a self-contained and self-sufficient entity, whose meaning and value can be found within its own boundaries
• Rather than relying on external factors such as the author's biography or historical context, the well-wrought urn approach focuses on the internal dynamics and tensions of the poem itself
• This view of the poem as a self-contained object allows for a more objective and rigorous analysis of its intrinsic qualities and effects

Organic unity of poems

• The well-wrought urn concept also emphasizes the idea of organic unity, or the notion that every element of a poem contributes to its overall meaning and impact
• Just as the various parts of an urn are carefully designed and integrated to create a harmonious whole, so too should the different aspects of a poem (e.g., form, language, imagery) work together to produce a unified and coherent effect
• Organic unity implies that the meaning of a poem cannot be reduced to any single element or interpretation but emerges from the complex interplay of its various parts

Poem's meaning vs reader's response

• While the well-wrought urn concept emphasizes the importance of the poem's intrinsic qualities, it does not entirely discount the role of the reader in the interpretive process
• New Critics acknowledge that different readers may have different responses to a poem, based on their own experiences, knowledge, and perspectives
• However, they argue that the poem's meaning is ultimately grounded in the text itself, and that the reader's task is to uncover and appreciate that meaning through careful analysis and interpretation, rather than imposing their own subjective reactions onto the work

Canonization of literature

• New Criticism played a significant role in the canonization of literature, or the process by which certain works come to be regarded as classics or masterpieces
• Through their emphasis on close reading and formal analysis, New Critics helped to establish a set of criteria for evaluating the literary merit and significance of individual texts
• The New Critical approach to canonization has been both influential and controversial, shaping the way literature is taught and studied while also facing challenges and critiques from later theoretical perspectives

Criteria for literary greatness

• New Critics proposed a set of criteria for determining the greatness or value of a literary work, based on its intrinsic qualities and effects
• These criteria included elements such as complexity, ambiguity, paradox, irony, and unity, as well as the skill and craftsmanship of the author in shaping the language and structure of the text
• Works that exemplified these qualities were seen as deserving of canonical status, regardless of their historical or cultural context

Influence on literary canon

• The New Critical approach to canonization had a significant impact on the development of the literary canon in the mid-20th century
• Many of the works championed by New Critics, such as the poems of John Donne, T.S. Eliot, and William Butler Yeats, became firmly established as classics of English literature
• The New Critical canon also tended to favor works from the Western tradition, particularly those from the Renaissance and the modernist period, while often overlooking or marginalizing works from other cultures and traditions

Criticisms of canon formation

• The New Critical approach to canonization has been criticized by later theoretical perspectives, such as feminism, postcolonialism, and cultural studies
• These critics argue that the New Critical canon is overly narrow and exclusive, privileging a certain type of literary work (e.g., complex, ironic, paradoxical) while ignoring or devaluing other forms of writing and expression
• They also point out that the New Critical canon reflects the biases and values of a particular cultural and historical moment, and that its claims to universality and objectivity are ultimately unsustainable
• More recent approaches to canonization have sought to expand and diversify the literary canon, recognizing the value and significance of works from a wider range of cultures, traditions, and perspectives

Impacts on literary criticism

• New Criticism had a profound and lasting impact on the field of literary criticism, both in terms of its specific theories and methods and in terms of its broader influence on the way literature is studied and taught
• While later theoretical movements have challenged and critiqued many of the assumptions and values of New Criticism, its emphasis on close reading, formal analysis, and the intrinsic qualities of the text remains a central part of the critical toolkit
• At the same time, the limitations and biases of the New Critical approach have led to ongoing debates and discussions about the nature and purpose of literary criticism, and the role of the critic in shaping our understanding of literature

Formalism vs historicism debate

• One of the key debates sparked by New Criticism was the tension between formalist and historicist approaches to literary study
• Formalists, following the New Critical emphasis on the intrinsic qualities of the text, argued that the meaning and value of a work could be found through close reading and analysis, without reference to its historical or cultural context
• Historicists, on the other hand, maintained that literature could not be fully understood or appreciated without considering the social, political, and cultural forces that shaped its production and reception
• This debate continues to inform literary studies today, with critics seeking to balance the insights of both formalist and historicist approaches in their interpretations of texts

Legacy of New Criticism

• Despite its limitations and critiques, New Criticism left a lasting legacy on the field of literary studies, both in terms of its specific theories and methods and in terms of its broader impact on the way literature is taught and studied
• The New Critical emphasis on close reading, formal analysis, and the intrinsic qualities of the text remains a central part of the critical toolkit, even as newer theoretical approaches have expanded and complicated our understanding of literature
• The New Critical canon, while challenged and critiqued, continues to shape the way literature is taught and studied, particularly at the undergraduate level
• At the same time, the limitations and biases of the New Critical approach have led to ongoing debates and discussions about the nature and purpose of literary criticism, and the role of the critic in shaping our understanding of literature

Influence on other critics

• New Criticism had a significant influence on later generations of literary critics, even as they sought to challenge and move beyond its assumptions and methods
• Structuralist critics, such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault, drew on the New Critical emphasis on the formal properties of the text, while also seeking to situate literature within broader systems of language and meaning
• Reader-response critics, such as Stanley Fish and Wolfgang Iser, challenged the New Critical assumption of the text's inherent meaning, arguing instead that meaning is constructed through the interaction between the reader and the text
• Poststructuralist and deconstructionist critics, such as Jacques Derrida and Paul de Man, radically questioned the New Critical faith in the stability and coherence of the literary work, emphasizing instead the inherent instability and undecidability of language and meaning
• While these later theoretical movements often defined themselves in opposition to New Criticism, they nonetheless built upon and extended many of its key insights and concerns, even as they sought to move beyond its limitations and blind spots