Literary Theory and Criticism Unit 1 Review: Formalism and New Criticism

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Formalism focuses on the intrinsic qualities of a literary work, emphasizing form, structure, and literary devices over historical, biographical, or social contexts
• New Criticism, an offshoot of Formalism, advocates for close reading and analyzing a text as a self-contained unit of meaning
• Formalists view literature as a unique form of human knowledge that has its own language, conventions, and artistic techniques
• The term "literariness" refers to the specific linguistic features and artistic qualities that distinguish literary texts from other forms of writing
• Defamiliarization, a key concept in Formalism, involves using literary techniques to make the familiar seem strange or unfamiliar, thereby enhancing the reader's perception and understanding of the world
  • Achieved through unconventional language, unusual imagery, or experimental narrative structures
• Formalists emphasize the importance of exploring the relationships between literary devices and the overall meaning of a text
• The concept of "organic unity" suggests that all elements of a literary work contribute to its overall structure and meaning, creating a cohesive whole

Historical Context and Origins

• Formalism emerged in Russia during the early 20th century as a reaction against the dominant literary theories of the time, which focused on the biographical, historical, and social contexts of literature
• The Russian Formalists, a group of literary critics and linguists, sought to establish a more scientific and objective approach to literary analysis
• Key figures in the development of Formalism include Viktor Shklovsky, Roman Jakobson, and Boris Eichenbaum, who were associated with the Moscow Linguistic Circle and the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ) in St. Petersburg
• Formalism was influenced by the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who emphasized the importance of studying language as a system of signs and the relationships between them
• The Russian Formalists were active during a period of significant artistic experimentation and innovation in Russia, including movements such as Futurism and Constructivism
• Formalism's emphasis on the autonomous nature of literature was a response to the politicization of art in the years following the Russian Revolution of 1917
• The ideas of Russian Formalism later spread to other countries, influencing the development of structuralism and New Criticism in the mid-20th century

Main Proponents and Their Works

• Viktor Shklovsky, a leading figure of the Russian Formalist movement, introduced the concept of defamiliarization in his essay "Art as Technique" (1917)
  • Shklovsky's works, such as "Theory of Prose" (1925) and "Zoo, or Letters Not About Love" (1923), exemplify Formalist principles in both theory and practice
• Roman Jakobson, a Russian-American linguist and literary theorist, made significant contributions to the study of poetic language and the functions of language in communication
  • Jakobson's essay "Linguistics and Poetics" (1960) explores the poetic function of language and its role in creating the "literariness" of a text
• Boris Eichenbaum, another prominent Russian Formalist, focused on the concept of the "literary fact" and the importance of studying literature as a specific form of art
  • Eichenbaum's works, such as "The Theory of the 'Formal Method'" (1926) and "Literature and Cinema" (1926), helped establish the Formalist approach to literary analysis
• Yury Tynianov, a Russian writer and critic, contributed to the development of Formalist concepts such as literary evolution and the notion of literature as a dynamic system
  • Tynianov's works, including "The Problem of Verse Language" (1924) and "The Literary Fact" (1924), explore the formal properties of literature and their role in shaping meaning
• Boris Tomashevsky, a Russian literary theorist, wrote extensively on poetics and the structure of literary works
  • Tomashevsky's "Thematics" (1925) and "Theory of Literature" (1925) are notable examples of Formalist literary analysis and theory

Core Principles of Formalism

• Formalism emphasizes the importance of studying the intrinsic qualities of a literary work, focusing on its form, structure, and literary devices
• Formalists believe that the primary task of literary criticism is to analyze how these formal elements contribute to the overall meaning and aesthetic effect of a text
• The concept of defamiliarization is central to Formalist thought, as it highlights the ways in which literature can challenge our habitual perceptions and renew our understanding of the world
• Formalists reject the idea that literature should be evaluated based on its adherence to external criteria, such as historical accuracy, moral value, or biographical relevance
• Instead, they argue that literature should be studied as a self-contained system with its own unique language, conventions, and artistic techniques
• Formalists emphasize the importance of close reading and detailed textual analysis, examining the relationships between literary devices and the overall structure of a work
• The notion of "literariness" is crucial to Formalist thought, as it distinguishes literary texts from other forms of writing and highlights the specific artistic qualities that make literature a unique form of human knowledge
• Formalists also explore the concept of literary evolution, studying how literary forms and devices change over time in response to new artistic challenges and innovations

New Criticism: A Close Reading Approach

• New Criticism, an offshoot of Formalism that emerged in the mid-20th century, focuses on the close reading and analysis of literary texts as self-contained units of meaning
• New Critics, such as John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, and Cleanth Brooks, emphasized the importance of studying the intrinsic qualities of a literary work, rather than its historical, biographical, or social contexts
• The New Critical approach involves a detailed examination of the text's language, imagery, symbolism, and other formal elements to uncover its underlying themes and meanings
• New Critics reject the intentional fallacy, the notion that the author's intended meaning should be the primary focus of literary analysis
• Instead, they argue that the meaning of a literary work is inherent in the text itself and can be discovered through careful, objective analysis
• The concept of the "heresy of paraphrase" suggests that the meaning of a literary work cannot be reduced to a simple summary or paraphrase, as its significance lies in the complex interplay of its formal elements
• New Critics also emphasize the importance of irony, paradox, and ambiguity in literature, viewing these qualities as essential to the richness and complexity of literary meaning
• The New Critical approach has had a significant influence on the teaching of literature in schools and universities, promoting the practice of close reading and the analysis of texts as autonomous works of art

Analytical Techniques and Methods

• Formalists and New Critics employ a range of analytical techniques and methods to study the intrinsic qualities of literary texts
• Close reading is a fundamental technique in both Formalist and New Critical approaches, involving a detailed examination of the text's language, structure, and literary devices
  • This method requires careful attention to the specific words, phrases, and images used in a text, as well as their relationships to one another and to the work as a whole
• Formalists often focus on identifying and analyzing the "dominant" or the most prominent formal element in a literary work, such as its rhyme scheme, narrative structure, or central metaphor
• The analysis of literary devices, such as metaphor, simile, personification, and irony, is central to Formalist and New Critical approaches, as these devices are seen as key to understanding the aesthetic and semantic richness of a text
• Formalists and New Critics also examine the patterns of sound, rhythm, and repetition in a literary work, studying how these elements contribute to its overall meaning and effect
• The concept of binary oppositions, or the structuring of a text around contrasting pairs of ideas or images, is another important analytical tool in Formalist and New Critical approaches
• Formalists and New Critics may also employ linguistic and semiotic analysis to study the ways in which language and signs function within a literary text
• The practice of comparing and contrasting different literary works, or different elements within a single work, is another common technique in Formalist and New Critical analysis, as it helps to illuminate the unique qualities and meanings of each text

Critiques and Limitations

• Formalism and New Criticism have been criticized for their narrow focus on the intrinsic qualities of literary texts, neglecting the importance of historical, social, and cultural contexts in shaping the production and reception of literature
• Some critics argue that the Formalist and New Critical emphasis on close reading and textual analysis can lead to a reductive or mechanistic approach to literary interpretation, ignoring the complexity and ambiguity of literary meaning
• The Formalist and New Critical rejection of authorial intention has been challenged by some theorists, who argue that an understanding of the author's background and motivations can enrich our appreciation of a literary work
• Formalism and New Criticism have been accused of promoting an elitist and apolitical view of literature, divorcing texts from their social and ideological contexts and privileging a narrow canon of "great works"
• The Formalist and New Critical focus on the autonomy of the literary text has been questioned by later theoretical approaches, such as reader-response criticism and reception theory, which emphasize the role of the reader in constructing meaning
• Some critics have argued that the Formalist and New Critical emphasis on irony, paradox, and ambiguity can lead to an overly skeptical or relativistic view of literary meaning, undermining the possibility of shared interpretations or stable truths
• The Formalist and New Critical approaches have been criticized for their limited applicability to certain genres and forms of literature, such as oral poetry, popular fiction, or postmodern experimental writing
• Despite these critiques and limitations, Formalism and New Criticism have had a lasting impact on the study of literature, promoting the practice of close reading and the analysis of texts as complex aesthetic objects

Legacy and Influence on Literary Studies

• Formalism and New Criticism have had a profound and enduring influence on the study of literature, shaping the methods and assumptions of literary criticism throughout the 20th century and beyond
• The Formalist emphasis on the intrinsic qualities of literary texts and the practice of close reading has become a cornerstone of modern literary analysis, informing the work of countless scholars and teachers
• The New Critical approach, with its focus on the autonomous meaning of the literary work, has been widely adopted in schools and universities, promoting the study of literature as a self-contained discipline
• Formalist and New Critical concepts, such as defamiliarization, literariness, and the heresy of paraphrase, have entered the vocabulary of literary studies and continue to shape discussions of literature and aesthetics
• The Formalist and New Critical emphasis on the formal properties of literature has influenced the development of later theoretical approaches, such as structuralism and semiotics, which build on the insights of these earlier movements
• At the same time, the limitations and biases of Formalism and New Criticism have prompted the emergence of alternative theoretical perspectives, such as Marxist criticism, feminist criticism, and postcolonial theory, which seek to situate literature within broader social, political, and historical contexts
• The Formalist and New Critical legacy can be seen in the ongoing debates within literary studies over the relative importance of form and content, text and context, and the role of the reader in the construction of meaning
• Despite the challenges posed by later theoretical developments, Formalism and New Criticism remain influential and relevant to the study of literature, offering valuable tools for the analysis and appreciation of literary texts as works of art