Glossary

2.1 Pre-Columbian Civilizations and Spanish Conquest

6 min read•july 30, 2024

Pre-Columbian civilizations in Latin America were diverse and advanced. The , , and in Mesoamerica and the in the Andes developed complex societies with impressive achievements in art, architecture, and agriculture.

The Spanish conquest drastically changed the region. Superior military technology, European diseases, and political instability among indigenous empires allowed the Spanish to conquer vast territories, leading to massive population declines and cultural shifts.

Pre-Columbian Civilizations of Latin America

Mesoamerican Civilizations

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  • The Olmec civilization, located in the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, is considered the first major civilization in Mesoamerica
    • Known for their colossal stone heads, advanced art and architecture, and influence on later Mesoamerican cultures
  • The Maya civilization, spanning from southern Mexico to Central America, is known for its advanced achievements
    • Developed a sophisticated writing system, complex calendar, and impressive cities with pyramids and temples (Tikal, Copán)
    • Had complex political and social structures, including city-states ruled by kings and a hierarchical society
  • The Aztec Empire, centered in the Valley of Mexico, was a powerful and expansive civilization
    • Built an impressive capital city, Tenochtitlan, on an island in Lake Texcoco
    • Developed advanced agricultural systems, including chinampas (floating gardens)
    • Had a complex religious and political structure, with the at the top and a system of tribute and taxation
  • Other significant Mesoamerican civilizations include the Toltec, Zapotec, and Mixtec
    • Each had their own unique cultural, artistic, and architectural achievements
    • The Toltecs, for example, are known for their influence on the later Aztec civilization and the city of Tula

Andean Civilizations

  • The Inca Empire, located in the Andean region of South America, was the largest pre-Columbian civilization
    • Built an extensive road network, the Qhapaq Ñan, that connected the empire and facilitated communication and trade
    • Developed advanced agricultural terracing techniques to cultivate crops on steep mountain slopes
    • Constructed impressive cities and monuments, such as , a mountaintop citadel
  • The Moche civilization, located on the northern coast of Peru, is known for its distinctive art and architecture
    • Created elaborate ceramic vessels depicting scenes from daily life, mythology, and warfare
    • Built large pyramids and temples, such as the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna

Factors in the Spanish Conquest

Military and Technological Advantages

  • The Spanish had superior military technology compared to indigenous populations
    • Horses, unknown in the Americas before the conquest, provided a significant advantage in mobility and warfare
    • Steel weapons, such as swords and armor, were more durable and effective than indigenous weapons
    • Firearms, including arquebuses and cannons, were powerful and intimidating weapons
  • The Spanish formed alliances with some indigenous groups who were rivals or enemies of the dominant empires
    • In Mexico, the Spanish allied with the Tlaxcalans, who resented Aztec domination, to conquer the Aztec Empire
    • In Peru, the Spanish exploited divisions within the Inca Empire, allying with groups opposed to the ruling Inca faction

Biological and Political Factors

  • European diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, decimated indigenous populations
    • Native Americans had no immunity to these diseases, leading to catastrophic population declines
    • Weakened indigenous societies, making them more vulnerable to Spanish conquest
  • The Spanish exploited political instability and internal conflicts within indigenous empires
    • The Aztec Empire faced internal challenges and rebellions from subjugated city-states
    • The Inca Empire was in the midst of a civil war between two rival claimants to the throne when the Spanish arrived
  • The Spanish conquistadors' motivation for wealth, glory, and religious conversion drove them to undertake risky and ambitious expeditions
    • The promise of gold, silver, and other riches attracted adventurers and investors to finance expeditions
    • The desire for personal glory and fame motivated conquistadors like and
    • The belief in the importance of spreading Catholicism and converting indigenous peoples to Christianity was a significant motivator

Impact of the Spanish Conquest

Demographic and Social Changes

  • The Spanish conquest resulted in a catastrophic population decline among indigenous peoples
    • Warfare, enslavement, and the introduction of European diseases led to the deaths of millions of native people
    • The indigenous population of Mexico, for example, declined from an estimated 25 million in 1519 to around 1 million by 1600
  • The Spanish imposed the , which granted Spanish colonists the right to indigenous labor and tribute
    • Encomiendas were granted to conquistadors and other Spanish settlers as a reward for their service
    • Indigenous people were required to provide labor and pay tribute to their encomendero, leading to exploitation and oppression
  • The Spanish conquest disrupted traditional indigenous social structures and political systems
    • Pre-Columbian hierarchies and power structures were replaced by Spanish colonial administration
    • Indigenous elites often collaborated with the Spanish to maintain some degree of power and privilege

Cultural and Religious Changes

  • The Spanish suppressed indigenous religious practices and imposed Catholicism
    • Sacred sites, temples, and artifacts were destroyed or repurposed for Christian use
    • Indigenous people were forced to convert to Catholicism, often under threat of punishment or death
  • The Spanish introduced new crops, animals, and agricultural practices, which altered indigenous land use patterns and food production
    • Crops such as wheat, barley, and sugarcane were introduced, along with livestock like cattle, pigs, and sheep
    • Traditional crops like maize, beans, and squash remained important, but agricultural practices and land tenure systems changed
  • The blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures gave rise to new, syncretic forms of art, music, and language
    • Mestizaje, the mixing of Spanish and indigenous peoples, created new ethnic and cultural identities
    • Indigenous artists and craftsmen incorporated European styles and techniques into their work, creating unique colonial-era art forms

Religion in Spanish Conquest and Colonization

Motivations and Justifications

  • The Spanish conquest was driven in part by a desire to spread Catholicism and convert indigenous populations to Christianity
    • The Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church saw the conquest as an opportunity to save souls and fulfill a divine mission
    • The idea of the "civilizing mission" was used to justify the conquest and subjugation of indigenous peoples
  • Catholic priests and friars, such as Bartolomé de las Casas, played a significant role in advocating for the rights and protection of indigenous peoples
    • Las Casas critiqued the abuses of the encomienda system and argued for more humane treatment of native peoples
    • His writings, such as "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies," brought attention to the plight of indigenous people under Spanish rule

Religious Institutions and Syncretism

  • The Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church worked together to establish missions and monasteries throughout the Americas
    • Missions served as centers for religious conversion, education, and acculturation of indigenous populations
    • Monasteries were established to train native elites and promote Spanish language and culture
  • The Catholic Church played a central role in the education and acculturation of indigenous populations
    • Schools and universities were established to train native elites and promote Spanish language and culture
    • Religious education was used to instill Catholic beliefs and values in indigenous children
  • The blending of Catholic beliefs and practices with indigenous religious traditions gave rise to syncretic forms of religion
    • The cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico, for example, combined Catholic and Aztec religious elements
    • Syncretic religions, such as Santería in Cuba and Candomblé in Brazil, blended African, indigenous, and Catholic beliefs and practices

Key Terms to Review (20)

Agricultural Techniques: Agricultural techniques refer to the methods and practices used in farming to cultivate crops and raise livestock. In the context of pre-Columbian civilizations and the Spanish conquest, these techniques were crucial for sustaining large populations and forming complex societies, which ultimately influenced the interactions between indigenous peoples and European colonizers. The innovations in agriculture significantly shaped social structures, economies, and even territorial expansion in Latin America.
Audiencia: An audiencia was a royal court established by the Spanish Crown in the colonies to administer justice and oversee local governance. It served as an important judicial and administrative institution during the colonial period, playing a critical role in maintaining Spanish authority and regulating colonial affairs, including land disputes and legal matters involving both colonizers and indigenous peoples.
Aztec: The Aztec civilization was a Mesoamerican culture that thrived from the 14th to the 16th century in what is now Mexico. Known for their advanced society, impressive architecture, and rich mythology, the Aztecs established a vast empire through military conquests and strategic alliances before their eventual fall to Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés.
City-State: A city-state is a self-governing urban center that operates independently and has its own political, economic, and cultural systems. This concept is especially relevant in the context of pre-Columbian civilizations in Latin America, where city-states often emerged as dominant political entities, influencing surrounding regions and forming complex networks of trade, tribute, and cultural exchange. The rise of city-states laid the groundwork for sophisticated societies that would later interact with Spanish conquistadors during the conquest period.
Colonization: Colonization is the process of establishing control over a foreign territory, often involving the settlement of people from a colonizing nation and the exploitation of local resources. This practice not only reshapes the physical landscape but also leads to significant cultural, social, and economic changes for the indigenous populations, often resulting in conflict and oppression. The colonization of the Americas, particularly by Spain, transformed the region's demographics, economies, and cultural identities.
Conquest of Peru: The Conquest of Peru refers to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, which occurred in the 1530s and resulted in the fall of one of the most powerful pre-Columbian civilizations in South America. Led by Francisco Pizarro, this event was marked by significant battles, alliances with local tribes, and the exploitation of internal conflicts within the Inca Empire, ultimately leading to Spanish colonial rule over Peru.
Cultural Syncretism: Cultural syncretism refers to the blending of different cultural elements, resulting in the creation of new practices, beliefs, and traditions. This phenomenon often occurs when diverse groups come into contact, leading to the integration of their cultural features. In the context of historical encounters, such as the Spanish conquest of indigenous populations, cultural syncretism played a crucial role in shaping the identity of Latin America, combining elements from both indigenous and European cultures.
Disease: Disease refers to a pathological condition of a bodily part, an infection, or an abnormal condition that disrupts normal bodily functions. In the context of the interactions between indigenous populations and European conquerors, diseases played a crucial role in the decline of Pre-Columbian civilizations, as they were exposed to unfamiliar pathogens brought by the Spanish during the conquest.
Emperor: An emperor is a sovereign ruler of an empire, holding supreme authority over vast territories and diverse populations. In the context of Pre-Columbian civilizations and Spanish conquest, emperors played crucial roles in the political and social structures of powerful empires such as the Aztec and Inca. Their authority was often supported by divine legitimacy, military power, and complex administrative systems that helped maintain control over their realms.
Encomienda system: The encomienda system was a labor system instituted by the Spanish Crown in the Americas during the early colonial period, granting Spanish settlers the right to extract forced labor from indigenous peoples in exchange for their protection and Christianization. This system was meant to encourage colonization by providing settlers with a means to establish agricultural and mining enterprises while subjugating native populations.
Fall of Tenochtitlán: The Fall of Tenochtitlán refers to the decisive conquest of the Aztec capital by Spanish forces led by Hernán Cortés in August 1521. This event marked the end of the Aztec Empire and initiated a period of Spanish colonization in what is now Mexico, fundamentally changing the social, political, and cultural landscape of the region.
Francisco Pizarro: Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the early 16th century. His actions not only resulted in significant territorial expansion for Spain but also had profound effects on the indigenous populations and the socio-political landscape of South America.
Guerrilla Warfare: Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants use unconventional tactics such as ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run strategies to fight a larger and more traditional military force. This style of fighting emphasizes mobility, surprise, and the element of stealth, making it particularly effective in asymmetrical conflicts. Guerrilla warfare has been historically significant in various conflicts, especially during periods of resistance against colonial powers or oppressive regimes.
Hernán Cortés: Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador known for leading the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. His actions marked a significant turning point in the history of the Americas, establishing Spanish colonial rule and impacting the indigenous populations and cultures of Mesoamerica.
Inca: The Inca were a highly advanced civilization that emerged in the Andean region of South America, primarily in present-day Peru, during the 15th century. Known for their impressive architecture, extensive road networks, and sophisticated agricultural practices, the Inca Empire became one of the largest empires in pre-Columbian America before its conquest by Spanish explorers in the 16th century. Their unique social structure and remarkable achievements in various fields left a lasting impact on the region.
Machu Picchu: Machu Picchu is an ancient Incan city located in the Andes Mountains of Peru, often referred to as the 'Lost City of the Incas.' This UNESCO World Heritage Site showcases the architectural and agricultural ingenuity of the Inca civilization, reflecting their advanced understanding of urban planning, terracing, and astronomy. It is a symbol of Inca culture and stands as a testament to their achievements before the Spanish conquest disrupted their civilization.
Maya: The Maya were an advanced Mesoamerican civilization that thrived from around 2000 BCE until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, known for their impressive achievements in architecture, mathematics, astronomy, and writing. They established city-states across present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, showcasing a complex social structure and cultural diversity that significantly contributed to the rich tapestry of Latin American history.
Olmec: The Olmec were one of the earliest known major civilizations in Mesoamerica, existing from around 1200 to 400 BCE. Known for their colossal stone heads and advanced societal structures, they significantly influenced later cultures in the region, making them a foundational civilization for understanding the development of pre-Columbian societies and the dynamics of the Spanish conquest that followed centuries later.
Pyramids of Teotihuacan: The Pyramids of Teotihuacan are monumental structures located in the ancient city of Teotihuacan, Mexico, which flourished between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. This site is home to two of the largest pyramids in Mesoamerica: the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, which were central to the religious and cultural practices of the Teotihuacan civilization. These pyramids reflect the city’s advanced engineering, architectural prowess, and its significance as a major urban center in Pre-Columbian history.
Ritual Sacrifice: Ritual sacrifice refers to the practice of offering a life, typically an animal or human, to a deity as part of a religious ceremony. This act was often believed to appease gods, ensure fertility, or secure victory in battle. In various Pre-Columbian civilizations, such as the Aztecs and Maya, ritual sacrifice held deep cultural significance and was intricately connected to their cosmology, social order, and the impacts of the Spanish Conquest.
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