2.1 First language acquisition
7 min read•august 15, 2024
First language acquisition is a fascinating journey that all humans embark on. It follows a predictable sequence of stages, from cooing and babbling to forming complex sentences. This universal pattern suggests an innate capacity for language learning.
The process is influenced by various factors, including input from caregivers and social interactions. Theories like nativism, behaviorism, and interactionism offer different perspectives on how children acquire language, highlighting the interplay between nature and nurture in this remarkable feat.
Stages of First Language Acquisition
Predictable Sequence of Development
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- First language acquisition follows a predictable sequence of stages: prelinguistic, one-word, two-word, telegraphic, and multi-word stages
- This sequence is consistent across cultures and languages, suggesting a universal pattern of language development
- Each stage builds upon the skills acquired in the previous stage, allowing for the gradual development of language competence
Early Stages: Prelinguistic and One-Word
- The prelinguistic stage (birth to 12 months) involves cooing, babbling, and gesturing to communicate needs and desires
- Cooing (2-3 months) consists of vowel-like sounds and is often associated with contentment or pleasure
- Babbling (6-12 months) involves the production of repetitive syllables (mama, dada) and is a precursor to word formation
- Gesturing, such as pointing or reaching, is used to indicate wants or interests
- The one-word stage (12-18 months) is characterized by the use of single words, often nouns, to convey meaning
- First words typically refer to familiar people (mama, dada), objects (ball, dog), or actions (up, go)
- Holophrastic speech, or the use of single words to convey complex meanings, is common during this stage (saying "milk" to mean "I want milk")
Later Stages: Two-Word, Telegraphic, and Multi-Word
- The two-word stage (18-24 months) involves combining two words to form simple sentences or phrases
- Two-word utterances often follow a subject-object or agent-action pattern (baby sleep, mommy go)
- Semantic relations, such as possession (daddy car) or location (dog outside), begin to emerge
- The telegraphic stage (24-30 months) features the use of content words in short, grammatically incomplete sentences
- Sentences lack function words (articles, prepositions) and inflections (plural -s, past tense -ed)
- Example: "Mommy go store" instead of "Mommy is going to the store"
- The multi-word stage (30+ months) involves the production of longer, more complex sentences with increasing grammatical accuracy
- Sentences include a wider range of parts of speech and grammatical structures
- Children begin to use conjunctions (and, because), auxiliary verbs (is, will), and more advanced verb tenses (present progressive, past tense)
Input and Interaction in Language Acquisition
The Role of Language Input
- Language input, or the language that children are exposed to, plays a crucial role in first language acquisition
- The quantity and quality of language input influence the rate and success of language development
- Children who receive rich and varied language input tend to have larger vocabularies and more advanced language skills
- Caregivers often use child-directed speech (CDS), characterized by simplified vocabulary, exaggerated intonation, and repetition, to facilitate language learning
- CDS, also known as or parentese, is slower, more melodic, and has a higher pitch than adult-directed speech
- CDS helps to capture and maintain children's attention, making language more accessible and engaging
The Importance of Interaction
- Interaction with caregivers and peers provides opportunities for children to practice and refine their language skills
- Conversational turn-taking, or the back-and-forth exchange of utterances, helps children learn the rules of communication and social interaction
- Joint attention, or the shared focus of attention between a child and caregiver, helps children learn the meaning of words and concepts
- When a caregiver points to an object and labels it, the child learns to associate the word with the referent
- Joint attention episodes, such as reading a book together or playing with toys, provide a context for language learning
- , or the support provided by caregivers to help children communicate effectively, aids in language development
- Caregivers may simplify their language, provide prompts or cues, or offer corrective feedback to help children express themselves
- As children's language skills improve, caregivers gradually reduce the level of support, allowing for more independent communication
Cognitive Development and Language
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
- Cognitive development and language acquisition are closely intertwined processes that influence each other
- Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children's language development is dependent on their cognitive stage
- The sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) coincides with the prelinguistic and early linguistic stages of language acquisition
- During this stage, children develop object permanence and begin to use symbols, such as words, to represent objects and events
- The emergence of symbolic thought is a prerequisite for language development
- The preoperational stage (2-7 years) is marked by the rapid expansion of vocabulary and the emergence of more complex language structures
- Children engage in symbolic play, using objects to represent other things (using a block as a phone)
- Egocentrism, or the inability to consider others' perspectives, is evident in children's language use (assuming others have the same knowledge or understanding)
The Relationship Between Language and Cognition
- The development of symbolic thought and mental representations during the preoperational stage facilitates the acquisition of abstract language concepts
- Children begin to understand and use words that refer to emotions, time, and hypothetical situations
- The ability to mentally represent objects and events allows for more sophisticated language use, such as storytelling or imaginative play
- The acquisition of language, in turn, supports cognitive development by providing a means for organizing and expressing thoughts and ideas
- Language serves as a tool for problem-solving, reasoning, and metacognition (thinking about thinking)
- The use of private speech, or self-directed speech, helps children regulate their behavior and guide their actions
- The relationship between language and cognition is bidirectional, with each process influencing and supporting the other
Theories of First Language Acquisition
Nativist Theories
- Nativist theories, such as Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD), propose that humans are born with an innate capacity for language learning
- Chomsky argued that the complexity and creativity of human language cannot be explained by environmental input alone
- The LAD is a hypothetical brain module that contains the universal grammar, or the set of rules and principles that govern all human languages
- Universal grammar is thought to constrain the possible structures of human languages, making language acquisition more efficient
- Children are born with an innate knowledge of these linguistic principles, which guides their language development
- Nativists argue that the universal grammar is hardwired in the brain, allowing children to acquire language quickly and effortlessly, despite limited input
Behaviorist Theories
- Behaviorist theories, such as Skinner's operant conditioning, emphasize the role of environmental input and reinforcement in language acquisition
- Skinner proposed that language is learned through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement of correct language use
- Children imitate the language they hear around them and are positively reinforced for producing correct utterances
- Incorrect utterances are either ignored or corrected, leading to the extinction of undesirable language behaviors
- Behaviorists view language as a set of verbal behaviors that are shaped by the environment, rather than an innate capacity
- Critics of behaviorist theories argue that they cannot account for the creativity and generativity of human language, as children produce novel utterances that they have never heard before
Interactionist Theories
- Interactionist theories, such as Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, highlight the importance of social interaction in language development
- Vygotsky emphasized the role of language in cognitive development, arguing that language is a tool for thought and social interaction
- Interactionists argue that language acquisition occurs through the dynamic interplay between the child's innate abilities and their social environment
- Children's language development is shaped by their interactions with more knowledgeable others, such as caregivers or older siblings
- Through scaffolding and guided participation, children learn to use language effectively in social contexts
- The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance from others
- Language learning occurs within the ZPD, as children are challenged to use language in increasingly complex ways with the support of their social partners
- Interactionist theories recognize the importance of both innate capacities and environmental factors in language acquisition, providing a more comprehensive view of the process
Comparing and Contrasting Theories
- While nativist theories focus on the innate capacity for language, behaviorist and interactionist theories emphasize the role of environmental factors in shaping language development
- Nativist theories have been criticized for underestimating the importance of input and interaction in language acquisition
- Behaviorist theories have been challenged for their inability to explain the creativity and productivity of human language
- Interactionist theories provide a more balanced perspective, acknowledging the contributions of both nature and nurture in language development
- Each theory offers valuable insights into the complex process of first language acquisition, and a comprehensive understanding may require the integration of multiple perspectives
Key Terms to Review (18)
B.F. Skinner: B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist and behaviorist known for his work on operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior. His theories have been influential in understanding how individuals acquire language, particularly in the context of first language acquisition, where the environment plays a crucial role in the learning process. Skinner's ideas suggest that children learn language through a system of rewards, where correct usage is positively reinforced.
Code-switching: Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation or discourse. This phenomenon often reflects the speaker's cultural identity, social context, and relationship dynamics, highlighting the intricate connections between language and culture in various settings.
Cognitive Load: Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental effort being used in the working memory. It plays a crucial role in learning and information processing, particularly in how individuals acquire new knowledge and skills. Understanding cognitive load helps educators design instructional materials that reduce unnecessary mental strain, allowing learners to focus on essential content, which is especially important during first language acquisition.
Critical Period Hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis suggests that there is a specific window of time during which language acquisition occurs most easily and effectively, typically thought to be during early childhood. This theory is often associated with the idea that if a person is not exposed to language during this critical period, they may struggle to acquire it later in life. Understanding this hypothesis helps explain why children can learn languages more effortlessly than adults, as their brains are more adaptable and receptive to linguistic input during this phase.
Cultural scripts: Cultural scripts are the shared understandings and social norms that guide behavior, communication, and interpretation within a specific cultural group. These scripts dictate how individuals are expected to act, express themselves, and interact with others based on cultural context, shaping not only language use but also the way experiences are perceived and understood in everyday life.
Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis is a theory proposed by Stephen Krashen which suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to language input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level, often referred to as 'i+1'. This concept emphasizes the importance of meaningful exposure to language as a critical factor in both first and second language learning, suggesting that understanding and context are essential for effective acquisition.
Interactional input: Interactional input refers to the communicative exchanges that occur between a language learner and their conversational partners, which play a crucial role in language development. This type of input emphasizes the importance of social interaction, highlighting how learners acquire language through meaningful dialogue, feedback, and negotiation of meaning. Interactional input is vital in first language acquisition as it supports the learner's understanding and use of language in context.
Language delay: Language delay refers to a condition where a child’s language skills are developing at a slower rate than what is typically expected for their age. This can manifest in various ways, including limited vocabulary, difficulties in constructing sentences, or challenges in understanding spoken language. Language delay is crucial to recognize because it can affect a child's ability to communicate effectively and can have lasting impacts on their social and academic development.
Language transfer: Language transfer refers to the influence that a person's first language has on the learning and use of a second language. This phenomenon can be positive, helping learners draw on familiar structures and vocabulary, or negative, leading to errors as learners mistakenly apply rules from their first language to the new language. Understanding language transfer is crucial for grasping how individuals acquire languages and how bilingualism can shape language use.
Motherese: Motherese, also known as infant-directed speech, is a distinctive way of speaking to infants characterized by a higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, slower tempo, and simplified vocabulary. This type of speech helps engage babies and captures their attention while facilitating early language learning and emotional bonding between the caregiver and child.
Nativist Theory: Nativist theory posits that the ability to acquire language is an innate biological capacity unique to humans. This idea suggests that children are born with a pre-existing knowledge of the fundamental principles of language, enabling them to rapidly learn and understand their native language without explicit instruction. The theory emphasizes the role of genetic predisposition in language acquisition, contrasting with theories that focus on environmental factors and learning through interaction.
Noam Chomsky: Noam Chomsky is a prominent linguist and cognitive scientist known for his revolutionary theories on language, particularly the concept of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans. His work has significantly influenced our understanding of how individuals learn their first language, the relationship between language and memory, and the impact of language on globalization, social media, artificial intelligence, and music.
Overgeneralization: Overgeneralization is a language acquisition phenomenon where children apply grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in incorrect forms. This often occurs during the process of first language acquisition, illustrating how young learners can misinterpret language patterns as they attempt to form words and sentences. While it reflects a child's developing understanding of grammar, it also showcases the challenges they face in mastering the complexities of language.
Pre-linguistic stage: The pre-linguistic stage refers to the early phase of language development in infants, typically occurring from birth to around 12 months, during which they communicate primarily through non-verbal means such as crying, cooing, and gestures. This stage is crucial as it lays the foundation for later language acquisition by helping infants develop their understanding of communication, social interaction, and the sounds of their native language.
Scaffolding: Scaffolding refers to the support provided to learners as they acquire new skills or knowledge, particularly in language learning. This concept involves breaking down complex tasks into manageable steps and offering guidance that adapts to the learner's evolving needs. In the context of first language acquisition, scaffolding is crucial as it helps children navigate the complexities of language through structured interaction and support.
Social Interactionist Theory: Social interactionist theory posits that language acquisition is heavily influenced by social interactions between children and their caregivers, emphasizing the importance of communication in the learning process. This approach suggests that children learn language not just through imitation but through meaningful exchanges and interactions within their social environment. The theory highlights how social context, cultural norms, and the use of language in specific contexts play vital roles in shaping a child's language development.
Sociolinguistic competence: Sociolinguistic competence refers to the ability of speakers to use language appropriately in various social contexts, understanding the social rules that govern language use, such as politeness, formality, and cultural norms. This competence allows individuals to navigate complex social interactions and communicate effectively with different groups, adapting their language according to the social dynamics at play. It encompasses not just linguistic skills but also awareness of how language varies across different communities and situations.
Telegraphic Speech: Telegraphic speech refers to the early stage of language development in children, characterized by the use of short, simple phrases that contain only essential words, omitting unnecessary grammatical elements. This form of communication typically includes nouns and verbs, capturing the core meaning of the message while disregarding function words like prepositions and articles. It reflects children's ability to convey meaning efficiently as they begin to master their first language.