2.3 Second Language Acquisition
5 min read•july 31, 2024
Second language acquisition (SLA) is a fascinating process of learning a new language after mastering your first. It's different from how babies learn their native tongue, involving more conscious effort and strategies. SLA is influenced by factors like age, motivation, and existing language knowledge.
Understanding SLA is crucial for language teachers and learners alike. It sheds light on how we can best approach learning a new language, considering things like the importance of , interaction, and the role of feedback in developing linguistic skills.
Second Language Acquisition Defined
Characteristics of Second Language Acquisition
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- Second language acquisition (SLA) involves learning a language after the first language (L1) acquisition, typically in adolescence or adulthood
- SLA develops linguistic competence in a non-native language encompassing phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics
- Often occurs in formal educational settings and may involve explicit instruction and conscious learning strategies
- Influenced by existing linguistic knowledge (L1 transfer) and cognitive maturity, which can facilitate and interfere with the acquisition process
- suggests an optimal age range for language acquisition, impacting SLA differently than first language acquisition
- Typically progresses at a slower rate and may not reach native-like proficiency, especially in pronunciation and complex grammatical structures
Comparison to First Language Acquisition
- SLA differs from first language acquisition in several key aspects
- Motivation and social factors play a more significant role in SLA compared to first language acquisition
- First language acquisition largely driven by innate language acquisition mechanisms
- SLA often involves conscious effort and explicit learning strategies
- L1 transfer can both facilitate and interfere with SLA, a factor not present in first language acquisition
- Age of onset affects SLA more significantly than first language acquisition
- Older learners may struggle more with certain aspects (pronunciation)
- Younger learners often achieve higher ultimate proficiency
Input and Interaction in SLA
Comprehensible Input and Interaction
- Comprehensible input crucial for SLA as proposed by Krashen's
- Should be slightly above learner's current proficiency level (i+1)
- Helps learners acquire new linguistic structures and vocabulary
- , developed by Long, emphasizes importance of negotiation of meaning
- Conversational adjustments facilitate language acquisition
- Examples include clarification requests, comprehension checks, and confirmation checks
- Input enhancement techniques draw learners' attention to specific linguistic features
- Textual manipulation (bolding, underlining)
- Prosodic emphasis (stress, intonation)
- Authentic input from various sources provides exposure to diverse language forms and cultural contexts
- Native speakers
- Media (movies, TV shows, podcasts)
- Literature (books, newspapers, magazines)
Output and Feedback in SLA
- Output production, highlighted in Swain's , forces deeper language processing
- Learners notice gaps in their linguistic knowledge
- Promotes hypothesis testing about language structures
- during interaction helps learners identify and rectify errors
- (reformulating incorrect utterances)
- Explicit correction
- Clarification requests
- Technology-mediated interaction offers additional opportunities for input and interaction
- Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
- Online language exchanges (tandem learning, language exchange apps)
- Virtual reality environments for immersive language practice
Learner Factors in SLA
Age and Critical Period
- Age of onset significantly affects SLA outcomes
- Younger learners generally achieve higher ultimate proficiency
- Particularly noticeable in pronunciation and implicit grammatical knowledge
- Critical Period Hypothesis posits language acquisition becomes more challenging after puberty
- Due to neuroplasticity changes
- Debate exists regarding exact nature and implications for SLA
- Some argue for multiple sensitive periods for different language aspects
Motivation and Personality
- Motivation in SLA encompasses multiple types
- Integrative (desire to integrate into target language community)
- Instrumental (practical reasons, career advancement)
- Intrinsic (personal interest and enjoyment)
- Extrinsic (external rewards or pressures)
- Personality factors influence learners' willingness to engage in language use
- Extroversion (more likely to seek out interaction opportunities)
- Risk-taking (willingness to make mistakes)
- Tolerance of ambiguity (comfort with uncertainty in language use)
- Learners' beliefs about language learning shape their approach to SLA
- Self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to learn)
- Expectations about the learning process
- Cultural attitudes towards language learning
Cognitive Factors and Aptitude
- Language aptitude predicts rate and success of SLA
- (recognizing and remembering sounds)
- (identifying grammatical functions)
- (inferring rules from examples)
- (forming and recalling associations)
- Individual differences in impact SLA
- Affects ability to notice, process, and internalize linguistic input
- Influences performance in complex language tasks
- Cognitive processing speed varies among learners
- Faster processing may lead to quicker acquisition of certain language aspects
- play crucial role in shaping approach to SLA
- Planning and goal-setting
- Monitoring progress
- Evaluating learning outcomes
Stages of Second Language Acquisition
Early Stages of SLA
- Silent/receptive stage characterized by minimal verbal production
- Focus on comprehension
- Building of receptive vocabulary
- May last a few hours to several months, depending on the learner
- Early production stage involves use of short phrases and simple sentences
- Often contains errors as learners experiment with target language
- Typical utterances include one or two-word responses
- Vocabulary limited to high-frequency words and basic phrases
Intermediate Stages of SLA
- Speech emergence stage marked by increased verbal production
- Longer sentences and improved fluency
- Errors in complex structures persist
- Learners begin to use simple grammatical structures more consistently
- Intermediate fluency stage shows significant improvement in comprehension and production
- Learners engage in more complex conversations
- Can express abstract ideas with some limitations
- Vocabulary expands to include more specific and less frequent words
Advanced Stages and Interlanguage Development
- Advanced fluency stage approaches native-like proficiency
- Sophisticated language use and cultural understanding
- Near-native comprehension in most contexts
- Ability to engage in academic and professional discourse
- development occurs throughout all stages
- Represents learner's evolving linguistic system
- Incorporates elements from L1, target language, and unique innovations
- Characterized by systematic errors and overgeneralization of rules
- may occur at any stage
- Certain non-target-like features become resistant to change
- Despite continued exposure and instruction
- Examples include persistent pronunciation errors or grammatical mistakes
Key Terms to Review (28)
Associative memory: Associative memory refers to the ability to remember information by making connections between different pieces of data, often relying on cues or related stimuli. This type of memory plays a vital role in how individuals acquire and retain a second language, as it allows learners to link new vocabulary, grammar rules, and cultural concepts with their existing knowledge. Associative memory is essential for building a network of understanding, enabling faster recall and more effective communication.
Cognitive Strategies: Cognitive strategies are mental processes and techniques that learners use to enhance their understanding, retention, and application of new information. These strategies involve conscious efforts to control one's own learning process, such as organizing information, visualizing concepts, and self-monitoring comprehension. In the context of acquiring a second language, these strategies can significantly impact how effectively a learner grasps vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Comprehensible Input: Comprehensible input refers to language input that is understandable to learners but slightly above their current level of proficiency. This concept plays a vital role in second language acquisition, as it emphasizes the importance of exposure to language that learners can grasp while still being challenged. When learners receive this type of input, it helps them to acquire new vocabulary and grammatical structures more effectively, fostering overall language development.
Corrective Feedback: Corrective feedback refers to information provided to learners about their language use, specifically pointing out errors and offering guidance for improvement. This type of feedback is crucial in language learning as it helps learners recognize their mistakes and understand the correct forms, facilitating the acquisition of a second language. It plays a significant role in the process of learning by promoting awareness of linguistic accuracy and enhancing overall communicative competence.
Critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis posits that there is a specific time frame during which individuals are particularly receptive to acquiring language. This concept suggests that if language exposure does not occur within this critical window, the ability to fully acquire that language diminishes significantly. The implications of this hypothesis are crucial for understanding language learning across different contexts, including first and second language acquisition, as well as how linguistic structures vary across languages.
Cultural Context: Cultural context refers to the social, historical, and environmental factors that shape and influence the way individuals communicate and understand language within a specific culture. This context plays a critical role in shaping how language is learned and acquired, as it encompasses beliefs, values, customs, and practices that are unique to a particular group of people. Understanding cultural context is essential for comprehending both first and second language acquisition as it affects not only the meaning of words but also the ways in which speakers interact and convey messages.
Emergence of speech: The emergence of speech refers to the process by which humans develop the ability to produce and understand spoken language. This process is crucial in understanding how individuals acquire language, especially in the context of learning a second language, as it highlights the cognitive and social factors that contribute to effective communication and language development.
Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to the drive to engage in an activity for external rewards or to avoid negative consequences rather than for the inherent satisfaction of the activity itself. This type of motivation can significantly influence behavior and learning, especially when it comes to acquiring new skills or knowledge, such as learning a second language. It often manifests through rewards like grades, praise, or tangible benefits, making it a critical factor in educational settings.
Formative Assessment: Formative assessment refers to a range of evaluative processes that educators use to monitor student learning during instruction, providing ongoing feedback that can be used to improve teaching and learning. This type of assessment is typically conducted before or during the learning process, rather than at the end, enabling teachers to adjust their methods and help students understand material more effectively. It emphasizes growth and improvement, promoting a more personalized approach to education.
Fossilization: Fossilization refers to the phenomenon in second language acquisition where certain incorrect language forms become fixed in a learner's speech and writing, despite further exposure and practice. This process often occurs when learners repeatedly make the same errors, leading to persistent patterns that can hinder their language development. Understanding fossilization helps in identifying why some learners struggle to achieve proficiency even after prolonged study or immersion in the target language.
Grammatical Sensitivity: Grammatical sensitivity refers to an individual's awareness and understanding of the grammatical structures and rules within a language. This sensitivity plays a crucial role in language learning, particularly in second language acquisition, as it helps learners notice and understand patterns, leading to more accurate and fluent language use. It involves the ability to recognize how different grammatical elements work together to convey meaning in communication.
Inductive Language Learning Ability: Inductive language learning ability refers to the capacity of learners to acquire language rules and structures through exposure to language input rather than through explicit instruction. This ability allows individuals to form generalizations based on examples they encounter, which is essential for mastering a second language in a naturalistic context.
Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that posits that learners acquire language most effectively when they are exposed to language input that is slightly above their current proficiency level, often referred to as 'i+1'. This theory emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input, suggesting that understanding language input is crucial for language development and learning. It connects to both the ways individuals acquire their first language and how they learn additional languages, highlighting the role of exposure and interaction with more proficient speakers.
Instrumental motivation: Instrumental motivation refers to the drive to learn a language for pragmatic or utilitarian reasons, such as obtaining a job, passing an exam, or achieving a specific goal. This type of motivation contrasts with integrative motivation, which is driven by the desire to connect with the culture or community associated with the language. Understanding instrumental motivation is crucial in examining how and why individuals approach second language acquisition, particularly in terms of their goals and aspirations.
Integrative Motivation: Integrative motivation refers to the drive to learn a language based on a desire to connect with and integrate into the culture of the language speakers. This type of motivation emphasizes personal relationships, social integration, and cultural appreciation, often leading to more profound and meaningful engagement with the language learning process.
Interaction Hypothesis: The interaction hypothesis suggests that language acquisition is facilitated through interaction and communication with others. It emphasizes the importance of meaningful exchanges, where learners receive feedback and negotiate meaning in a social context, leading to a deeper understanding and use of the second language.
Interlanguage: Interlanguage is a linguistic system created by second language learners as they progress towards full proficiency in the target language. It reflects the learner's evolving understanding of the language, showcasing a mix of elements from both their native language and the target language. This unique system often includes rules and patterns that may not align with either language, making it an important concept in understanding how people acquire a second language.
Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal drive to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than for some external reward. This type of motivation is fueled by personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest in the task itself, which can significantly enhance learning and engagement in various contexts, including language acquisition. When learners are intrinsically motivated, they are more likely to persist through challenges and invest effort into mastering a new skill or concept.
Jim Cummins: Jim Cummins is a prominent educational researcher known for his work in bilingual education and second language acquisition. His theories, particularly the distinction between Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), have greatly influenced how educators understand language learning in bilingual settings. His contributions help clarify the cognitive demands of acquiring a second language and the importance of supporting bilingual learners in both social and academic contexts.
Metacognitive Strategies: Metacognitive strategies are techniques used to help individuals understand and control their own learning processes. These strategies involve self-awareness about how one learns, including planning, monitoring, and evaluating one's understanding and performance. They play a crucial role in enhancing language comprehension and supporting the effective acquisition of a second language by promoting self-regulation and adaptive learning behaviors.
Output Hypothesis: The Output Hypothesis proposes that producing language (speaking or writing) can enhance second language acquisition by helping learners process language more deeply. This theory suggests that when learners attempt to express their thoughts in the target language, they are pushed to notice gaps in their language knowledge, leading to increased linguistic awareness and learning opportunities. It emphasizes the active role of output in facilitating the internalization of linguistic structures.
Phonetic Coding Ability: Phonetic coding ability refers to the skill of processing and retaining information based on the sounds of words, which plays a crucial role in language acquisition, particularly in learning a second language. This ability allows individuals to decode spoken language and associate phonetic sounds with their corresponding written forms, ultimately enhancing vocabulary development and reading proficiency. It is especially significant in contexts where phonological awareness and auditory discrimination are necessary for effective communication and language learning.
Placement tests: Placement tests are assessments designed to evaluate a learner's proficiency in a language before they begin formal study. These tests help determine the appropriate level of instruction for each student, ensuring that they are placed in a class that matches their skill level. The results of these tests can significantly impact a learner's educational journey, shaping their language acquisition experience and progression.
Pre-Production: Pre-production refers to the initial phase of language development in second language acquisition where learners focus on listening and comprehension before they start speaking. This stage is characterized by learners absorbing the sounds, vocabulary, and structures of the new language, while feeling hesitant to produce spoken language themselves. It is essential for building a foundation for effective communication and confidence in later stages of language learning.
Recasts: Recasts are a form of corrective feedback in language learning where a teacher or conversational partner repeats a learner's incorrect utterance, but reformulates it correctly without explicitly pointing out the mistake. This technique provides learners with the correct form of the language naturally in context, allowing them to notice and internalize their errors while keeping the conversation flowing. Recasts play a significant role in second language acquisition as they help learners improve their language proficiency through implicit correction.
Social Interaction: Social interaction is the process by which individuals engage with one another, influencing and shaping their thoughts, behaviors, and identities. It is fundamental to human communication and is essential in learning languages, as it creates the context in which language use occurs. Through social interaction, learners of a second language can practice their skills, receive feedback, and develop cultural understanding, all of which are crucial for effective communication in diverse social settings.
Stephen Krashen: Stephen Krashen is a linguist and educational researcher best known for his theories on second language acquisition, particularly his input hypothesis, which emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input for language learning. His work has significantly influenced teaching methods and approaches in language education, advocating for environments where learners are exposed to language that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level.
Working Memory Capacity: Working memory capacity refers to the ability of an individual to hold and manipulate information in their mind over a short period of time. It is crucial for tasks that involve reasoning, comprehension, and learning, as it allows us to keep relevant information accessible while ignoring distractions. This concept is particularly important in understanding language processing and the challenges faced during second language acquisition, where learners must juggle multiple linguistic elements simultaneously.