🎌Japanese American History Unit 6 – WWII: Pearl Harbor and Anti-Japanese Sentiment

Historical Context

• Japanese immigration to the U.S. began in the late 1800s, primarily to Hawaii and the West Coast
• Many Japanese immigrants worked as laborers on sugar plantations (Hawaii) and farms (mainland U.S.)
• Anti-Asian sentiment grew in the early 1900s, fueled by economic competition and racial prejudice
  • Alien Land Laws prevented Japanese immigrants from owning land in several states (California, Washington, Oregon)
  • Immigration Act of 1924 effectively banned Japanese immigration to the U.S.
• U.S.-Japan relations deteriorated in the 1930s as Japan expanded its military presence in Asia (Manchuria, China)
• American public opinion turned against Japan following the Nanking Massacre and other atrocities committed by Japanese forces
• U.S. imposed economic sanctions and an oil embargo on Japan in response to its aggressive actions in Asia

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

• On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
• The attack began at 7:48 a.m. local time and lasted for approximately two hours
• Japanese forces employed 353 aircraft launched from six aircraft carriers, targeting battleships, airfields, and other military installations
• Eight U.S. battleships were damaged, with four sunk, including the USS Arizona, which lost 1,177 crew members
• The attack also destroyed or damaged 300 aircraft, killed 2,403 Americans, and wounded 1,178 others
• Japan intended to neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet, preventing American interference with its planned conquest of Southeast Asia
• The attack was a tactical success but a strategic failure, as it galvanized American public opinion and led to the U.S. entry into World War II

Immediate Aftermath and U.S. Response

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed Congress on December 8, 1941, calling the attack "a date which will live in infamy"
• The U.S. declared war on Japan, with Congress voting almost unanimously in favor (one dissenting vote)
• Germany and Italy, Japan's allies, declared war on the U.S. on December 11, leading to a full-scale global conflict
• The U.S. government took swift action against Japanese Americans, driven by fear, racism, and the belief that they might be disloyal
  • Treasury Department froze the assets of Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans
  • FBI arrested over 1,200 Japanese community leaders, including businessmen, priests, and teachers
• Public opinion quickly turned against Japanese Americans, with many politicians and media outlets calling for their removal from the West Coast

Executive Order 9066

• On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the military to designate "military areas" from which any or all persons could be excluded
• The order did not specifically mention Japanese Americans but was primarily used to target them
• Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command, issued a series of proclamations establishing "Military Areas" along the West Coast
• DeWitt's "Final Report" argued for the mass incarceration of Japanese Americans, citing their "racial characteristics" and potential for disloyalty
• Over 110,000 Japanese Americans were ordered to evacuate their homes and report to temporary "assembly centers" before being sent to permanent incarceration camps
• The majority of those incarcerated were U.S. citizens, and none were ever charged with a crime or given due process

Internment Camps and Life Behind Barbed Wire

• The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was established to oversee the incarceration of Japanese Americans
• Ten permanent incarceration camps were built in remote areas of the country (Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain)
• Conditions in the camps were harsh, with families living in cramped, poorly insulated barracks and facing extreme temperatures
• Incarcerees had to endure loss of privacy, inadequate medical care, and substandard food
  • Communal latrines and dining halls offered little privacy
  • Dust storms and extreme weather plagued many of the camp locations
• Despite the difficult circumstances, incarcerees worked to create a sense of community within the camps
  • They established schools, churches, and recreational activities
  • Some camps had thriving agricultural programs, producing food for the incarcerees and the outside world
• Resistance and unrest occurred in some camps, most notably at Tule Lake, which became a segregation center for those deemed "disloyal"

Propaganda and Media Portrayal

• U.S. government propaganda portrayed the incarceration as a "military necessity" and downplayed the harsh conditions in the camps
• Euphemistic terms like "relocation" and "evacuation" were used to mask the reality of forced removal and incarceration
• Government-produced films, such as "Japanese Relocation" (1943), depicted the camps as benevolent and necessary for national security
• Mainstream media outlets, including newspapers and magazines, largely supported the incarceration and perpetuated stereotypes of Japanese Americans as "inscrutable" and potentially disloyal
• Some journalists, like Dorothea Lange and Paul Kitagaki Sr., documented the harsh realities of the camps and the impact on Japanese American communities
• Japanese American newspapers, such as the Heart Mountain Sentinel and the Manzanar Free Press, provided a voice for incarcerees and chronicled life in the camps

Japanese American Military Service

• Despite the incarceration, many Japanese Americans served in the U.S. military during World War II
• The 100th Infantry Battalion, composed mainly of Japanese Americans from Hawaii, fought in Europe and became known as the "Purple Heart Battalion" for their bravery and sacrifices
• The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, made up of Japanese American volunteers from the mainland and Hawaii, became the most decorated unit of its size in U.S. military history
  • The 442nd fought in Europe, including the rescue of the "Lost Battalion" in France
  • The unit's motto, "Go for Broke," reflected their all-out commitment to the war effort
• Japanese American linguists, known as the Military Intelligence Service (MIS), served as translators and interpreters in the Pacific theater
• The contributions and sacrifices of these soldiers helped to challenge stereotypes and demonstrate the loyalty of Japanese Americans

Long-Term Impact on Japanese American Communities

• The incarceration had devastating economic, social, and psychological effects on Japanese American communities
• Many Japanese Americans lost their homes, businesses, and property as a result of the forced removal
• The disruption of community ties and the trauma of the experience had lasting impacts on individuals and families
• After the war, some Japanese Americans returned to their former homes, while others resettled in new areas across the country
• The Japanese American community worked to rebuild and advocate for their rights in the post-war era
  • The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) played a key role in the fight for redress and reparations
  • The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 provided a formal apology and monetary compensation to surviving incarcerees
• The incarceration experience has become a central part of Japanese American identity and history
  • Memorials, museums, and educational programs have been established to preserve and share this history (Japanese American National Museum, Manzanar National Historic Site)
  • The legacy of the incarceration continues to inspire activism and advocacy for civil rights and social justice