8.1 Urban Structure and Land Use
5 min read•august 16, 2024
Urban structure and land use shape cities' physical form and function. From central business districts to sprawling suburbs, various models explain how cities grow and organize themselves. These patterns reflect complex interactions between economic, social, and geographic factors.
Land use policies play a crucial role in guiding urban development. From regulations to initiatives, these strategies aim to create sustainable, livable cities. Understanding these concepts is key to grasping how modern urban landscapes evolve and function.
Spatial patterns and structure of cities
Urban morphology and central districts
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- Urban morphology examines the physical form and structure of cities including street layouts, building patterns, and land use distribution
- Central Business Districts (CBDs) form the core of cities characterized by high-rise buildings, concentrated commercial activities, and peak land values
- Urban sprawl refers to the outward expansion of cities into surrounding rural areas often resulting in low-density development and increased automobile dependency (Los Angeles)
- emerge as large-scale, mixed-use developments on the outskirts of major metropolitan areas often near highway intersections (Tysons Corner, Virginia)
Urban growth models and phenomena
- Concentric zone models, sector models, and multiple nuclei models explain the internal structure and growth patterns of cities
- Concentric zone model proposes cities grow in rings with distinct land use patterns (Chicago)
- Sector model suggests wedge-shaped development along transportation routes
- posits cities have multiple centers of activity and growth
- involves the renovation and redevelopment of deteriorated urban neighborhoods often leading to demographic shifts and socioeconomic changes (Brooklyn, New York)
- Urban heat islands describe the phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to built environment characteristics
- Caused by factors like reduced vegetation, dark surfaces, and waste heat from buildings
- Can be mitigated through green roofs, reflective materials, and urban forests
Urban land use models
Classic urban models
- Concentric Zone Model developed by Ernest Burgess proposes cities grow outward in concentric rings with distinct land use patterns in each zone
- Zones typically include , transition zone, working-class residential, middle-class residential, and commuter zone
- Homer Hoyt's Sector Model suggests cities develop in wedge-shaped sectors along major transportation routes with similar land uses extending outward from the city center
- Accounts for the influence of transportation corridors on urban growth
- Multiple Nuclei Model proposed by Harris and Ullman posits cities have multiple centers of activity and growth rather than a single central business district
- Reflects the complexity of modern urban structures with specialized districts
Economic and contemporary models
- Bid Rent Theory explains how land use patterns are influenced by the competition for space and the willingness of different activities to pay for prime locations
- Higher-value activities (retail) outbid lower-value activities (residential) for central locations
- Urban Realms Model developed by James Vance describes the polycentric nature of modern cities with multiple specialized districts and edge cities
- Accounts for suburban employment centers and decentralized urban structures
- Latin American city models such as the Griffin-Ford Model account for unique cultural and historical factors influencing urban development in Latin American contexts
- Incorporates elements like elite residential spine and peripheral squatter settlements
- Contemporary urban models often incorporate concepts of sustainable development, smart growth, and transit-oriented development to address modern urban challenges
- Focus on creating compact, walkable communities with mixed land uses
Factors influencing urban land use
Infrastructure and economic influences
- Transportation infrastructure shapes urban land use patterns and accessibility
- Road networks, public transit systems, and airports guide development patterns
- Transit-oriented development clusters around transportation hubs (Portland's MAX light rail)
- Economic factors play a crucial role in determining the location and intensity of various land uses
- Job markets, industry clusters, and real estate values influence development decisions
- Silicon Valley's tech industry concentration shapes surrounding land use patterns
- Zoning regulations and land use policies established by local governments directly influence the type, density, and distribution of urban development
- Control building heights, setbacks, and permitted uses in different areas
Geographic and socio-cultural factors
- Physical geography constrains and guides urban growth and land use decisions
- Topography, water bodies, and natural hazards impact development patterns
- San Francisco's hilly terrain influences street layout and building design
- Historical and cultural factors impact urban development patterns and land use choices
- Preservation of historic districts or cultural landmarks shapes surrounding areas
- Boston's Freedom Trail influences tourism-related development in the city center
- Demographic trends influence housing demand and urban expansion
- Population growth, household composition, and migration patterns affect development
- Aging populations may increase demand for accessible housing and medical facilities
- Technological advancements reshape urban form and function leading to new patterns of land use and development
- Communication technologies enable remote work, impacting office space demand
- E-commerce growth influences retail and warehouse development patterns
Land use policies and urban change
Growth management and sustainability policies
- Comprehensive planning and zoning ordinances guide and control urban development and land use patterns
- Establish long-term visions for city growth and regulate land uses by district
- Urban growth boundaries and greenbelts contain urban sprawl and preserve surrounding agricultural or natural areas
- Portland, Oregon's urban growth boundary limits outward expansion
- Transit-oriented development (TOD) policies promote high-density, mixed-use development around public transportation hubs
- Reduce car dependency and enhance urban sustainability
- Arlington, Virginia's Rosslyn-Ballston corridor exemplifies successful TOD
- Smart growth strategies promote compact, walkable urban development
- Encourage mixed land uses, higher densities, and alternative transportation options
- Maryland's Smart Growth initiative prioritizes development in designated growth areas
Urban revitalization and preservation policies
- Brownfield redevelopment initiatives encourage the remediation and reuse of contaminated urban sites
- Promote infill development and urban revitalization
- Pittsburgh's transformation of former steel mill sites into mixed-use developments
- Historic preservation policies protect culturally significant buildings and neighborhoods
- Influence the character and development patterns of urban areas
- New Orleans' French Quarter preservation shapes tourism and local economy
- Inclusionary zoning policies aim to increase options
- Require developers to include a percentage of affordable units in new residential projects
- Montgomery County, Maryland's inclusionary zoning program created thousands of affordable units
Key Terms to Review (25)
Affordable housing: Affordable housing refers to residential units that are economically accessible to individuals or families with low to moderate incomes, typically defined as spending no more than 30% of their income on housing costs. This concept is crucial in addressing social equity and urban development, as it ensures that a diverse population can reside within urban areas and benefit from resources and opportunities. Access to affordable housing is a vital component in creating sustainable communities, minimizing homelessness, and improving overall quality of life.
Burgess Model: The Burgess Model, also known as the Concentric Zone Model, is a model of urban land use that explains how cities expand outward from a central point in a series of concentric rings. It illustrates the socio-economic structure of urban areas and highlights the relationships between different land uses and socio-economic statuses within a city, helping to understand urban growth patterns.
Central business district: The central business district (CBD) is the commercial and business center of a city, typically characterized by a high concentration of retail, offices, and cultural institutions. It serves as the economic hub where major businesses, financial institutions, and government offices are located, making it essential for urban structure and land use planning. The CBD is often associated with high land values and dense development due to its accessibility and attractiveness for both workers and consumers.
Chauncy Harris: Chauncy Harris was an influential American urban geographer known for his contributions to the understanding of urban structure and land use. He is best known for co-developing the multiple nuclei model of urban land use, which describes how cities grow and evolve, emphasizing that urban areas have multiple centers of activity rather than a single central business district. His work highlighted the complexities of urban development and how social, economic, and spatial factors interact in shaping cities.
Commercial land use: Commercial land use refers to the designation of land for activities related to commerce, including retail, offices, and services. This type of land use is crucial in shaping urban environments, influencing economic development, and providing access to goods and services for communities. Understanding commercial land use helps in analyzing urban structures and the organization of cities, as it affects transportation, infrastructure, and community planning.
Edge Cities: Edge cities are decentralized urban centers that emerge on the outskirts of traditional cities, characterized by a concentration of business, retail, and entertainment facilities. They typically develop in response to suburbanization and changing economic patterns, serving as nodes of activity for residents who may not need to commute into the central city for work or leisure. These areas often feature significant amounts of office space and shopping centers, reshaping urban structure and land use dynamics.
Edward Ullman: Edward Ullman was a prominent American geographer known for his contributions to urban geography and land use theory. He developed key concepts that explain how urban spaces are structured and how they function, particularly in relation to transportation and economic activities. His work helped shape our understanding of the spatial organization of cities and the interactions between different urban areas.
Ernest W. Burgess: Ernest W. Burgess was an American sociologist known for his contributions to urban studies and the development of the Chicago School of Sociology. He is best recognized for his model of urban land use, which illustrated how cities grow and change over time, reflecting social dynamics and economic factors. His work laid the foundation for understanding urban structure and the spatial organization of cities.
Gentrification: Gentrification is the process in which urban neighborhoods undergo transformation through the influx of wealthier residents, leading to rising property values and often displacing lower-income residents. This phenomenon is often tied to urban renewal initiatives and can significantly reshape the cultural and social fabric of a community, affecting land use, economic dynamics, and housing availability.
Hoyt Model: The Hoyt Model, also known as the Sector Model, is an urban land use model developed by economist Homer Hoyt in 1939. It describes the arrangement of different socio-economic groups within a city, suggesting that urban areas grow in sectors radiating out from the central business district (CBD) along transportation corridors. This model emphasizes the impact of transportation on urban structure and land use, illustrating how certain sectors develop based on accessibility and economic activities.
Industrial land use: Industrial land use refers to areas designated for manufacturing, production, and other industrial activities. These zones are essential for economic development, providing spaces for factories, warehouses, and distribution centers that contribute significantly to a region's economy. Understanding industrial land use helps in analyzing urban growth patterns and the spatial organization of cities.
Land-use planning: Land-use planning is the process of managing how land is developed and utilized, aiming to balance various factors such as economic growth, environmental protection, and community needs. This planning ensures that land is used efficiently and sustainably, guiding decisions on zoning, transportation, and infrastructure development. Effective land-use planning directly impacts urban structure by influencing where residential, commercial, and industrial areas are located.
Megacity: A megacity is an urban area that has a population of over 10 million people, showcasing significant economic, cultural, and political influence. These cities often serve as global hubs for commerce and trade, attracting migrants from rural areas and other countries, leading to rapid population growth and unique challenges in urban planning and infrastructure development.
Metropolitan Area: A metropolitan area is a region that includes a densely populated urban core and its surrounding areas, which are economically and socially connected to that core. It typically encompasses multiple municipalities and extends beyond the urban center to include suburban and exurban areas, reflecting the patterns of urbanization and land use within the region.
Multiple nuclei model: The multiple nuclei model is an urban land use theory that suggests cities develop around multiple centers, or 'nuclei', rather than a single central business district (CBD). This model illustrates how various urban activities and functions cluster around different focal points, leading to diverse land uses and patterns of growth, reflecting the complexity of urban environments and how they adapt over time.
Peripheral model: The peripheral model is an urban structure theory that suggests cities consist of a central area surrounded by various peripheral zones, including residential neighborhoods, industrial parks, and commercial districts. This model highlights the relationship between urban areas and their surrounding regions, emphasizing how economic activities and population tend to spread out from the city center to the periphery, often leading to decentralized urban growth.
Residential land use: Residential land use refers to areas within urban environments designated primarily for housing, where people live and establish their homes. This type of land use significantly influences urban structure, as it dictates population density, community layout, and accessibility to services and amenities. Understanding residential land use helps in analyzing urban planning, demographic trends, and the overall functionality of a city.
Smart growth: Smart growth is an urban planning and development approach that focuses on creating sustainable, livable, and economically viable communities by promoting efficient land use, transportation options, and environmental stewardship. It aims to balance development with the preservation of natural resources and community values, addressing the challenges posed by urbanization and rapid population growth.
Social segregation: Social segregation refers to the separation of individuals or groups within a society based on social characteristics such as ethnicity, income, education, or religion. This phenomenon can manifest in various forms, including residential patterns, educational systems, and access to public services, often leading to unequal opportunities and resources for different social groups.
Suburbanization: Suburbanization refers to the process of population movement from urban areas to suburban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of suburbs around cities. This phenomenon is often driven by factors such as the search for more affordable housing, a desire for larger living spaces, improved quality of life, and the appeal of less crowded environments. Suburbanization can significantly impact population distribution and density, urban development patterns, and land use in metropolitan areas.
Sustainable urban development: Sustainable urban development refers to the planning and growth of cities in a way that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It integrates social, economic, and environmental considerations to create resilient communities that can thrive in the face of challenges like climate change, resource scarcity, and urbanization. This approach emphasizes the efficient use of resources, reduction of waste, and enhancement of quality of life for urban residents.
Urban Heat Island: An urban heat island is a phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly warmer temperatures than their rural surroundings due to human activities and land use changes. This warming effect is caused by factors like reduced vegetation, increased impervious surfaces, and heat generated from buildings, vehicles, and industrial processes. The urban heat island effect not only affects local climate but also has implications for energy consumption, air quality, and public health.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, often as a result of migration from rural regions to cities. This trend is associated with economic development, changes in social structure, and increased access to services, but it can also lead to significant challenges like overcrowding and environmental degradation.
Walkable city: A walkable city is an urban environment designed to promote walking as a primary mode of transportation, featuring accessible amenities, pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, and compact land use. This design encourages community interaction, reduces reliance on cars, and enhances the quality of life for residents by providing easy access to services, public spaces, and recreational areas.
Zoning: Zoning is the process of dividing land into different areas or zones to regulate how the land can be used. This practice helps manage urban growth, ensuring that residential, commercial, and industrial spaces are organized and separated according to their specific purposes. By establishing zoning laws, cities can control density, maintain property values, and promote environmental sustainability while also addressing community needs.