7.1 Historical background and the rise of Neo-Confucianism
4 min read•august 16, 2024
The emerged from the ashes of the declining in the late 14th century. General 's military coup in 1388 paved the way for a new era, culminating in the establishment of Joseon in 1392 with Yi as King Taejo.
became the ideological backbone of the Joseon Dynasty. This philosophical system, emphasizing moral cultivation and social harmony, reshaped Korean society. It influenced everything from government structure to family dynamics, leaving a lasting imprint on Korean culture.
Joseon Dynasty's Origins
Goryeo Dynasty's Decline
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- Late 14th century Goryeo Dynasty marked by political corruption led to conditions ripe for regime change
- Economic instability and social unrest further weakened Goryeo's authority
- General Yi Seong-gye's 1388 military coup against Goryeo king's northern expedition policy set stage for Joseon's establishment
- Coup targeted unpopular expansionist policies
- Demonstrated military's growing influence in politics
Yi Seong-gye's Rise to Power
- Yi Seong-gye consolidated power through strategic alliances with Neo-Confucian scholars
- Reformist officials supported Yi's vision for a new government structure
- 1392 marked formal establishment of Joseon Dynasty with Yi Seong-gye ascending throne as King Taejo
- Chose name "Joseon" to connect new dynasty to ancient Korean kingdom
Early Joseon Reforms
- Land reform initiatives redistributed property to stabilize economy
- Implemented equal-field system () to fairly allocate agricultural land
- Government restructuring centralized power under monarchy
- Created Six Ministries system () for efficient administration
- Promotion of Neo-Confucian ideology legitimized new dynasty's rule
- Established Confucian temples and academies (seowon) to spread teachings
Neo-Confucianism's Principles
Philosophical Foundations
- Neo-Confucianism developed by Zhu Xi in Song Dynasty China synthesized classical ethics with metaphysical concepts
- Incorporated elements from (meditation practices) and Daoism (cosmology)
- Core principle of li (理, principle) and qi (氣, material force) provided framework for understanding universe
- Li represented underlying order and pattern of reality
- Qi manifested as physical matter and energy
- Emphasized self-cultivation as path to moral perfection
- Practiced through study, reflection, and meditation
Social and Ethical Teachings
- Stressed importance of social harmony achieved through proper relationships
- Five Relationships (ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger, friend-friend)
- Education played crucial role in achieving moral governance
- Believed in transformative power of learning to create virtuous individuals and society
- Promoted idea of meritocracy in government
- Advocated for selection of officials based on moral character and knowledge
Adoption as State Ideology
- Neo-Confucianism's emphasis on social order aligned with Joseon Dynasty's goals
- Provided philosophical justification for hierarchical society
- established as highest educational institution to propagate Neo-Confucian teachings
- Trained future government officials in Confucian classics and ethics
- Four Books and Five Classics became foundation of civil service examination system
- Four Books: (Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects, Mencius)
- Five Classics: (Book of Changes, Book of Documents, Book of Poetry, Book of Rites, Spring and Autumn Annals)
Neo-Confucianism's Impact on Joseon
Political and Social Restructuring
- Political system emphasized meritocracy with scholar-officials (yangban) at center of administration
- Civil service examinations (gwageo) became primary path to government positions
- Social hierarchy redefined according to Neo-Confucian principles
- Scholars at top, followed by farmers, artisans, and merchants
- Reinforced idea of social roles and responsibilities
- Family and clan structures reorganized based on Neo-Confucian ethics
- Patriarchal authority strengthened
- Filial piety (hyo) became central virtue in family relations
Cultural and Artistic Influence
- Gender roles significantly impacted by Neo-Confucian ideology
- Stricter segregation of sexes in public and private spheres
- Women's social participation limited, especially among upper classes
- Arts and literature deeply influenced by Neo-Confucian aesthetics
- Poetry emphasized moral themes and natural imagery ( poetry form)
- Painting focused on landscapes and scholarly pursuits (literati painting)
- Ritual propriety () codified in elaborate ceremonial practices
- Affected both public ceremonies (state rituals) and private life (ancestor worship)
Scholars' Influence on Joseon
Founding and Early Joseon Scholars
- Jeong Do-jeon played crucial role in establishing Neo-Confucianism as state ideology
- Designed new government structure based on Confucian principles
- Authored influential works on statecraft and philosophy
- Gwon Geun and Kim Jong-jik interpreted Neo-Confucian texts for Korean context
- Adapted Chinese classics to reflect Korean cultural sensibilities
- Laid intellectual foundation for future Korean Neo-Confucian thought
Philosophical Debates and Schools
- 16th century saw emergence of rival schools of Neo-Confucian thought
- emphasized primacy of principle (li)
- stressed importance of material force (qi)
- (Toegye) and (Yulgok) advanced Neo-Confucian philosophy in Korea
- Toegye developed on human nature and emotions
- Yulgok proposed integrating li and qi
Scholars' Role in Governance
- Neo-Confucian scholars often served as advisors to Joseon kings
- Influenced policy decisions on issues ranging from foreign relations to economic reforms
- Maintained Seowon (private academies) outside official government sphere
- Preserved and developed intellectual traditions
- Sometimes became centers of political opposition
- Late Joseon period saw emergence of (Practical Learning) movement
- Scholars like Yu Hyeong-won and Jeong Yak-yong critically reexamined Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
- Advocated for practical reforms in agriculture, commerce, and social welfare
Key Terms to Review (26)
Buddhism: Buddhism is a spiritual tradition founded in the 5th century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, emphasizing the path to enlightenment through practices such as meditation, ethical conduct, and wisdom. In Korea, it has significantly influenced cultural expressions, philosophical thought, and artistic development throughout history.
Confucian rituals: Confucian rituals are a set of formal ceremonies and practices that are rooted in Confucian philosophy, emphasizing respect, social harmony, and moral integrity. These rituals were crucial for maintaining social order and reinforcing hierarchical relationships within families and society, reflecting the core principles of Neo-Confucianism that emerged in the late medieval period.
Four-Seven Debate: The Four-Seven Debate refers to a philosophical discourse in Korean Neo-Confucianism that examines the relationship between the 'Four Beginnings' (compassion, shame, courtesy, and right and wrong) and the 'Seven Emotions' (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, dislike, and desire). This debate played a crucial role in defining moral philosophy and ethics within the context of Neo-Confucian thought, particularly focusing on how human emotions can align with or diverge from ethical behavior.
Gasa: Gasa is a longer form of Korean poetry that emerged during the Joseon Dynasty, characterized by its narrative and lyrical qualities. It often explores themes of love, nature, and social commentary, reflecting the cultural and historical context of the time.
Goryeo Dynasty: The Goryeo Dynasty was a Korean dynastic kingdom that lasted from 918 to 1392, known for its cultural achievements, the flourishing of Buddhism, and the establishment of a unified Korean identity. This period was significant in shaping Korean literature and arts, influenced by both Chinese culture and local traditions.
Hungnon School: The Hungnon School refers to a group of Neo-Confucian scholars and thinkers who emerged during the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. This school is notable for its emphasis on practical ethics and the application of Confucian ideals to real-life situations, marking a significant shift in Korean philosophical thought during the rise of Neo-Confucianism.
Imjin War: The Imjin War, also known as the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), was a series of military conflicts initiated by Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi aiming to conquer Korea and use it as a pathway to invade China. This conflict had profound impacts on Korean society, politics, and culture, fostering a strong resistance movement and significantly influencing the rise of Neo-Confucianism during the late Joseon period.
Jeongjeon: Jeongjeon refers to the concept of 'benevolent governance' within the context of Neo-Confucianism, emphasizing the importance of moral integrity and ethical leadership in the state. This idea underscores that a ruler's virtue directly influences the well-being of their subjects, promoting harmony and order in society. The belief in jeongjeon became central to governance during the rise of Neo-Confucianism, shaping political philosophy and practices in premodern Korea.
Joseon Dynasty: The Joseon Dynasty was a Korean dynastic kingdom that lasted from 1392 to 1910, marking a significant period in Korean history characterized by political stability, cultural advancement, and the development of Neo-Confucianism as a guiding philosophy. This era played a pivotal role in shaping Korea’s literature, culture, and social structure, influencing various aspects of life that are still relevant today.
Mongol Invasions: The Mongol Invasions refer to a series of military campaigns initiated by the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, which resulted in the conquest of large parts of Asia and Eastern Europe. These invasions significantly altered the political, social, and cultural landscapes of the regions affected, including Korea, which experienced both devastation and shifts in governance that ultimately contributed to the rise of Neo-Confucianism as a dominant ideology.
Neo-Confucianism: Neo-Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical movement that emerged in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) as a response to Buddhism and Daoism, seeking to reinterpret Confucian thought to address spiritual and moral questions. This movement significantly influenced Korean culture, especially during the Joseon Dynasty, shaping various aspects of literature, art, and societal values.
Pansori: Pansori is a traditional Korean musical storytelling performance characterized by a solo singer who narrates a dramatic tale accompanied by a drummer. This art form is deeply rooted in Korean culture, serving as a crucial medium for the expression of emotions and social commentary, linking it to various aspects of Korea's literary and cultural history.
Saimnon school: The saimnon school was a significant intellectual movement in Korea during the late Choson Dynasty that focused on the study and interpretation of Confucian texts. This school played a key role in shaping the Neo-Confucian discourse in Korea, emphasizing the importance of practical ethics and moral cultivation in daily life, thus connecting philosophical thought to societal practices.
Scholar-official examination system: The scholar-official examination system was a civil service exam process used in Korea, primarily during the Joseon Dynasty, to select government officials based on merit rather than birthright. This system became crucial for the rise of Neo-Confucianism, as it promoted Confucian values and education, emphasizing the importance of scholarly knowledge and moral integrity in governance.
Seonggyungwan: Seonggyungwan was the highest educational institution in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, primarily focused on Confucian studies. It played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual and moral landscape of the time, becoming a center for the promotion of Neo-Confucian ideals and the training of government officials. By emphasizing scholarly pursuits, seonggyungwan contributed to the preservation and transmission of premodern Korean literary works and cultural values.
Sijo: Sijo is a traditional Korean poetic form characterized by its three-line structure and a specific syllable pattern of 14-16-14. This poetic style emerged in the Goryeo period and flourished during the Joseon dynasty, becoming a vital part of Korean literature. Sijo encapsulates deep philosophical themes, emotional expression, and often reflects the socio-cultural dynamics of its time.
Silhak: Silhak, or 'practical learning,' refers to a movement that emerged in Korea during the late Joseon period, advocating for the application of knowledge to real-world issues and social reforms. It sought to challenge the dominant Neo-Confucian ideals that prioritized abstract learning and moral philosophy, pushing for a more pragmatic approach to governance and society. Silhak thinkers emphasized the importance of empirical observation and practical skills to address the needs of the people.
Simin: Simin refers to the common people or the masses in Korean society, often emphasizing their role and significance within the cultural and social context. This term emerged as a response to the elite class during the rise of Neo-Confucianism, highlighting the importance of the lower classes in contributing to society and shaping cultural values.
Single-force theory: Single-force theory is a philosophical concept in Neo-Confucianism that posits the existence of a singular, underlying principle that governs the universe and human behavior. This idea emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and suggests that understanding this single force can lead to harmony in both individual lives and society at large.
The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty: The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty are the official historical records of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910. These extensive records document the reigns of each king, detailing significant events, policies, and daily life, and reflect the values of Neo-Confucianism that were central to the dynasty's governance. The Annals were primarily written in Hanja, the classical Chinese characters used in Korea, but they also paved the way for the development and use of Hangul as a more accessible writing system for Koreans.
The Tale of Hong Gildong: The Tale of Hong Gildong is a classic Korean story that tells the adventures of Hong Gildong, the illegitimate son of a nobleman who seeks acceptance and recognition in society. This tale is significant as it embodies cultural values, critiques social hierarchies, and explores themes of identity, justice, and the search for belonging, connecting deeply with cultural narratives and traditions.
Ye: In the context of Korean Neo-Confucianism, 'ye' (예) refers to the concept of ritual propriety or etiquette that governs human behavior and social interactions. This principle emphasizes the importance of maintaining harmony within society through proper conduct, which is crucial for achieving moral development and understanding one's place in the universe. 'Ye' is seen as a means to cultivate virtue and establish a moral society, reflecting broader Confucian ideals.
Yi Hwang: Yi Hwang, also known as Toegye, was a prominent Korean Confucian scholar during the Joseon Dynasty, whose ideas significantly influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism in Korea. His philosophical teachings emphasized moral cultivation, self-discipline, and the importance of understanding human nature, making him a key figure in shaping Joseon society and its intellectual landscape.
Yi i: Yi I, also known as Yulgok, was a prominent Korean scholar and philosopher of the Joseon Dynasty, best known for his contributions to Neo-Confucianism. He played a significant role in developing and interpreting Confucian thought in Korea, especially in relation to ethics, politics, and the role of individuals in society. His ideas helped shape the moral and intellectual landscape of Korea during his time and continue to influence Korean thought today.
Yi Seong-gye: Yi Seong-gye, also known as Taejo of Joseon, was the founder and first king of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea, reigning from 1392 to 1398. His rise to power marked a significant transition from the Goryeo Dynasty to the Joseon Dynasty, which established Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology and fundamentally transformed Korean society and governance.
Yukjo: Yukjo refers to the concept of the 'Six Relationships' in Confucianism, which emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and moral duties within society. This framework serves as a foundation for social harmony and order, highlighting the roles and responsibilities individuals have towards each other in various contexts, such as family, government, and community.