🇯🇵Intro to Premodern Japanese Literature Unit 8 – Medieval Japan: Noh & Kyōgen Theater

Historical Context

• Noh and Kyōgen theater emerged during the Muromachi period (1336-1573) in medieval Japan
• Developed under the patronage of the ruling samurai class, particularly the Ashikaga shogunate
• Influenced by earlier forms of Japanese theater, such as Dengaku and Sarugaku
• Reflects the aesthetic and philosophical ideals of the samurai elite, including Zen Buddhism and the concept of wabi-sabi
• Became a highly refined and stylized art form that catered to the tastes of the aristocracy
• Performed primarily for the samurai class and the imperial court, rather than the general public
• Noh and Kyōgen were often performed together in a single program, with Kyōgen providing comic relief between the more serious Noh plays
• The patronage of the samurai class ensured the preservation and transmission of Noh and Kyōgen through the centuries

Origins and Development

• Noh theater traces its origins to the Sarugaku tradition of the Heian period (794-1185)
  • Sarugaku was a form of popular entertainment that included acrobatics, juggling, and comic skits
• Kyōgen developed alongside Noh as a comedic counterpart, featuring humorous dialogues and slapstick humor
• The father of Noh theater is considered to be Kan'ami Kiyotsugu (1333-1384)
  • Kan'ami was a Sarugaku performer who refined the art form and introduced new elements, such as the use of masks and the incorporation of dance
• Kan'ami's son, Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1443), further developed Noh theater and established its aesthetic principles
  • Zeami wrote numerous plays and treatises on Noh, which form the basis of the art form to this day
• Noh and Kyōgen were codified and standardized during the Edo period (1603-1868) under the patronage of the Tokugawa shogunate
• The Tokugawa shogunate recognized five official schools of Noh (the Kanze, Hōshō, Komparu, Kongō, and Kita schools) and three schools of Kyōgen (the Ōkura, Sagi, and Izumi schools), which continue to perform and transmit the art form to the present day

Key Characteristics

• Noh theater is characterized by its highly stylized and symbolic nature, emphasizing beauty, elegance, and restraint
• Performances are slow-paced and minimalistic, with sparse staging and a focus on the actors' movements and vocal delivery
• Noh plays are typically divided into five categories based on the type of character portrayed by the shite (main actor)
  • Kami mono (god plays), Shura mono (warrior plays), Katsura mono (wig plays), Zatsu mono (miscellaneous plays), and Kiri Noh (final plays)
• Noh plays often draw upon Japanese literature, history, and mythology for their subject matter
• The use of masks is a defining feature of Noh theater
  • Masks are used to represent the main character's age, gender, and emotional state
  • The expressionless quality of the masks allows the audience to project their own emotions onto the character
• Noh performances are accompanied by a chorus (jiutai) and a small ensemble of musicians (hayashi) playing the flute (nōkan), shoulder drum (kotsuzumi), hip drum (ōtsuzumi), and stick drum (taiko)
• Kyōgen plays, in contrast to Noh, feature lively dialogue, exaggerated movements, and humorous situations
  • Kyōgen actors do not wear masks and often engage in direct interaction with the audience

Performers and Roles

• Noh theater is performed exclusively by male actors, who specialize in specific roles and are trained in the art form from a young age
• The main roles in Noh are the shite (protagonist), waki (deuteragonist), and kyōgen (comedic interludes)
  • The shite is the main character and the focus of the play, often portraying supernatural beings or historical figures
  • The waki is the secondary character who serves as a foil to the shite and often represents the human world
  • Kyōgen actors perform comedic sketches between Noh plays and sometimes appear as minor characters within the plays themselves
• Other roles in Noh include the tsure (companion to the shite or waki), the ai (intermediary between the shite and waki), and the kōken (stage attendants)
• Noh actors are trained in a rigorous system of apprenticeship, learning the art form through imitation and repetition
  • Training encompasses acting, singing, dancing, and the use of masks and costumes
  • Actors are associated with specific schools and lineages, with roles often passed down from father to son
• Kyōgen actors, like their Noh counterparts, undergo extensive training in the art of comedic performance
  • Kyōgen roles are divided into categories such as the master (shujin), servant (tarō kaja), and priest (yamabushi)

Staging and Costumes

• Noh is performed on a simple, square stage made of hinoki cypress wood
  • The stage is open on three sides and features a bridge (hashigakari) that connects the stage to the backstage area
  • The stage is adorned with a single pine tree painting (kagami-ita) on the back wall, symbolizing the unchanging nature of the art form
• The minimalistic stage design in Noh allows the audience to focus on the actors' movements and the symbolic nature of the performance
• Noh costumes are elaborate and richly decorated, reflecting the characters' social status, age, and gender
  • Costumes are made of silk and feature intricate embroidery, gold and silver thread, and other embellishments
  • The colors and patterns of the costumes are chosen to symbolize the character's emotions and traits
• Noh masks are carved from Japanese cypress wood and painted with natural pigments
  • There are over 200 types of Noh masks, each representing a specific character or emotional state
  • The use of masks allows actors to portray a wide range of characters, including young women, old men, and supernatural beings
• Kyōgen costumes are simpler than those used in Noh, reflecting the more down-to-earth nature of the characters
  • Kyōgen costumes often feature bold, contrasting colors and patterns, emphasizing the comedic aspects of the performance
• Kyōgen stages are similar to those used in Noh, but may include additional props and set pieces to support the comedic action of the plays

Famous Plays and Playwrights

• Zeami Motokiyo is considered the greatest playwright in the Noh tradition, having written over 50 plays that are still performed today
  • Some of Zeami's most famous works include "Atsumori," "Izutsu," and "Takasago"
• Other notable Noh playwrights include Kan'ami Kiyotsugu (Zeami's father), Komparu Zenchiku, and Kanze Kojirō Nobumitsu
• Famous Noh plays often draw upon Japanese literature, such as "The Tale of Genji" and "The Tale of the Heike"
  • "Aoi no Ue" is based on a chapter from "The Tale of Genji" and portrays the jealousy and possession of Lady Aoi by the spirit of Lady Rokujō
  • "Kiyotsune" is derived from "The Tale of the Heike" and tells the story of the tragic fate of the young warrior Kiyotsune
• Other well-known Noh plays include "Hagoromo" (The Feather Mantle), "Dōjōji," and "Matsukaze"
• Kyōgen plays are typically shorter and more numerous than Noh plays, with over 250 plays in the repertoire
• Famous Kyōgen plays include "Busu" (Sweet Poison), "Bōshibari" (Tied to a Pole), and "Tsurigitsune" (The Fox and the Trapper)
• Notable Kyōgen playwrights include Ōkura Toraakira, who wrote many of the plays still performed today

Themes and Symbolism

• Noh plays often explore themes of love, loss, and the transience of life, reflecting the Buddhist concept of impermanence (mujō)
• Many Noh plays feature supernatural characters, such as ghosts, demons, and divine beings, symbolizing the intersection of the human and spiritual worlds
• The use of masks in Noh serves as a powerful symbol of the characters' inner states and the transformative power of the art form
• Noh plays often incorporate the concept of "yugen," a profound, mysterious beauty that is felt rather than seen
  • Yugen is expressed through the subtle movements, gestures, and expressions of the actors, as well as the poetic language of the text
• The pine tree painted on the back wall of the Noh stage symbolizes the unchanging nature of the art form and the enduring spirit of the characters
• Kyōgen plays often satirize the social hierarchy and the foibles of human nature, using humor to comment on the world of the samurai and the common people
• The use of exaggerated movements and facial expressions in Kyōgen symbolizes the absurdity and comedy of everyday life
• Kyōgen plays often feature characters from the lower classes, such as servants and peasants, highlighting the universal human experiences of joy, sorrow, and laughter

Cultural Impact and Legacy

• Noh and Kyōgen have had a profound influence on Japanese culture, aesthetics, and literature
• The plays have inspired countless works of art, including paintings, sculptures, and woodblock prints
• Noh has influenced other forms of Japanese theater, such as Kabuki and Bunraku, as well as modern dance and avant-garde performance art
• The aesthetic principles of Noh, such as yugen and wabi-sabi, have shaped Japanese art, architecture, and design
• Noh and Kyōgen have been recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, acknowledging their significance as living traditions
• Today, Noh and Kyōgen continue to be performed by professional troupes and transmitted through the traditional system of apprenticeship
  • Performances are held in dedicated Noh theaters, as well as at festivals, temples, and shrines throughout Japan
• Noh and Kyōgen have gained international recognition, with performances and workshops held in countries around the world
  • Many contemporary theater practitioners, such as Tadashi Suzuki and Yukio Ninagawa, have drawn inspiration from Noh in their own works
• The enduring legacy of Noh and Kyōgen is a testament to the power of these art forms to transcend time and culture, offering timeless insights into the human condition