11.2 Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture
3 min read•august 6, 2024
The Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture was profound during the . Manchu rulers introduced new customs, like the queue hairstyle and qipao dress, while also embracing Chinese traditions. This blend of cultures shaped art, fashion, and social structures.
Manchu rule also impacted education and literature. Emperors promoted bilingual learning and sponsored major literary works. Novels like "" reflected this cultural fusion, offering glimpses into Qing society and the complex relationships between Manchus and Han Chinese.
Manchu Culture and Customs
Language and Dress
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- Manchu language belongs to the Tungusic language family and uses a script derived from the Mongolian alphabet
- was created in 1599 by adapting the Mongolian script to write the Manchu language
- Qipao/Cheongsam is a type of body-hugging one-piece Chinese dress for women that originated from the Manchus (became popular among Han Chinese women during the 1920s)
- Manchu women originally wore a long robe with a slit skirt over the robe, which later evolved into the qipao
Hairstyles and Accessories
- Manchu hairstyle for men involved shaving the front of the head while growing the back hair long and braiding it into a queue (also known as the "queue order")
- Queue hairstyle was imposed on the Han Chinese during the Qing Dynasty as a symbol of submission to Manchu rule (refusal to adopt the hairstyle was seen as treason)
- Manchu women wore elaborate hairstyles with hair extensions, decorated with flowers, pearls, and other ornaments
- Manchu women also wore unique earrings, known as "three drops", which consisted of three tiers of pearls or precious stones
Manchu Political and Social Structures
Eight Banners System
- was a military and social organization used by the Manchu people during the Qing Dynasty
- Manchu society was divided into eight banners, each identified by a different color (yellow, white, red, and blue, each in a plain and bordered variant)
- Banners served as military units as well as social and economic organizations (members of the same banner lived together, trained together, and fought together)
- System was later expanded to include Mongol and Han Chinese banners, which helped to integrate these ethnic groups into the Qing state
Multicultural Qing Court and Manchu-Han Relations
- Qing court was a multicultural environment, with Manchu, Mongol, and Han Chinese officials working together
- Manchu emperors adopted a policy of cultural accommodation, allowing Han Chinese to maintain many of their customs and traditions
- Manchu emperors also learned Chinese language and culture (Emperor Qianlong was a notable patron of Chinese art and literature)
- Despite efforts at accommodation, tensions existed between Manchus and Han Chinese throughout the Qing Dynasty (Han Chinese resented Manchu rule and faced discrimination in the government and military)
- Manchu-Han relations were further strained by policies such as the queue order and the prohibition of intermarriage between Manchus and Han Chinese
Manchu Influence on Education and Literature
Bilingual Education and Literary Patronage
- Qing emperors promoted bilingual education in Manchu and Chinese (schools were established to teach both languages to Manchu and Han Chinese students)
- Manchu emperors, particularly Kangxi and Qianlong, were patrons of Chinese literature and art (sponsored the compilation of encyclopedias, dictionaries, and literary anthologies)
- commissioned the , a comprehensive Chinese dictionary that remains a standard reference work today
- sponsored the , a massive collection of Chinese books and manuscripts covering a wide range of subjects
Cultural Synthesis and Literary Works
- Manchu rule led to a synthesis of Manchu and Han Chinese cultures, reflected in literature, art, and music of the period
- Dream of the Red Chamber (also known as Story of the Stone) by is a classic Chinese novel that provides insight into Qing Dynasty society and culture (depicts the decline of a wealthy family and the complex relationships among its members)
- Dream of the Red Chamber incorporates elements of both Manchu and Han Chinese culture (characters wear Manchu-style clothing and use Manchu words and phrases)
- (The Unofficial History of the Scholars) by Wu Jingzi is a satirical novel that criticizes the imperial examination system and the corruption of Qing Dynasty officials (reflects the tensions between Manchu and Han Chinese elites)
Key Terms to Review (23)
Ancestor worship: Ancestor worship is a religious practice that involves honoring and revering deceased family members, reflecting the belief that the spirits of ancestors can influence the lives of their descendants. This practice is deeply rooted in various cultures, particularly in East Asia, and it often involves rituals, offerings, and maintaining ancestral tablets or shrines. The significance of ancestor worship can be seen in its connections to familial bonds, social hierarchy, and cultural identity.
Cao Xueqin: Cao Xueqin was an influential Chinese writer and poet of the 18th century, best known for his monumental novel 'The Dream of the Red Chamber,' which is considered one of the greatest works of Chinese literature. His writing encapsulates major themes of love, loss, and the complexity of family dynamics, reflecting both personal experiences and broader cultural contexts of his time.
Court life: Court life refers to the lifestyle and culture surrounding the royal court, encompassing the social, political, and artistic activities of the elite and their interactions within the imperial system. It was a complex web of relationships, rituals, and practices that shaped the lives of those in proximity to power, significantly influencing literature and culture during the Manchu rule in China.
Cultural Hybridity: Cultural hybridity refers to the blending and merging of different cultural elements, practices, and identities, resulting in new, hybrid forms. This concept highlights how cultures can influence each other, particularly during periods of significant social or political change, creating unique combinations that reflect both original and borrowed traditions.
Dream of the Red Chamber: Dream of the Red Chamber, written by Cao Xueqin in the 18th century, is one of China's greatest classical novels, exploring themes of love, family, and the decline of a noble family. It intricately combines elements of reality and dreams to reflect on social hierarchies, personal desires, and the fleeting nature of life.
Eight Banners System: The Eight Banners System was a military and social organization used by the Manchu people during the Qing Dynasty, which served as a key tool for governance and military control. This system categorized soldiers into eight distinct groups or 'banners', each representing a different ethnic group within the Manchu society. The Eight Banners were crucial in maintaining the power of the Qing rulers and allowed for efficient administration over a diverse population.
Kangxi Dictionary: The Kangxi Dictionary is a comprehensive Chinese dictionary compiled during the Kangxi Emperor's reign in the Qing Dynasty, published in 1716. It is one of the most important dictionaries in Chinese history, standardizing the language and providing a resource for scholars and officials. The dictionary reflects Manchu influence by incorporating both Manchu and Chinese elements, showcasing the cultural integration of the period.
Kangxi Emperor: The Kangxi Emperor was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, ruling from 1661 to 1722. His reign is one of the longest in Chinese history and is notable for significant cultural, political, and economic developments, showcasing the Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture during this period.
Li yu: Li yu refers to a style of Chinese poetry and prose characterized by its focus on personal emotions, individual expression, and a conversational tone. This form emphasizes the importance of lyricism and often incorporates themes of nature, love, and personal experience, making it distinct within the broader context of Chinese literature, especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Loanwords: Loanwords are words borrowed from one language and incorporated into another, often adapting to the phonetic and grammatical rules of the new language. In the context of Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture, loanwords reflect the blending of linguistic elements as well as cultural exchange between the Manchu and Han Chinese societies during the Qing dynasty.
Manchu Conquest: The Manchu Conquest refers to the series of military campaigns by the Manchu people, culminating in their takeover of China and the establishment of the Qing Dynasty in 1644. This conquest not only marked a significant shift in political power but also led to profound changes in Chinese literature and culture as the Manchus integrated their traditions with those of Han Chinese society.
Manchu Novels: Manchu novels are literary works written in the Manchu language that emerged during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912). These novels reflect the cultural and social dynamics of the Manchu people and their integration into Han Chinese society, showcasing themes of identity, loyalty, and tradition. Manchu novels not only contribute to understanding Manchu culture but also highlight the literary exchanges between Manchu and Chinese writers during this period.
Manchu Opera: Manchu opera is a traditional form of theater that originated from the cultural practices of the Manchu people, featuring unique performance styles, music, and storytelling. It played a significant role in the cultural landscape of China, especially during the Qing Dynasty, showcasing Manchu history and values while also influencing other regional forms of Chinese opera.
Manchu Script: Manchu script is a writing system developed for the Manchu language, which was used by the Manchu people in northeastern China. It is based on the vertical script of the Mongolian language and was adopted to facilitate communication and administration during the Qing Dynasty, influencing various aspects of Chinese literature and culture as the Manchus ruled China from 1644 to 1912.
Nature themes: Nature themes refer to the exploration and representation of natural elements, landscapes, and environmental relationships in literature. These themes often highlight the beauty, power, and influence of nature on human life, reflecting both harmony and conflict between humanity and the natural world.
Poetry during the Qing: Poetry during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) reflects a complex interplay of traditional Chinese literary forms and the influence of Manchu culture. It represents a significant period in which poets engaged with both classical styles and new themes, often addressing social issues and personal experiences, while also responding to the political changes of their time. The era saw a revival of older poetic styles as well as the emergence of new literary trends that would shape modern Chinese literature.
Qianlong Emperor: The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty, ruling from 1735 to 1796. He is known for his efforts to consolidate power, expand the empire, and promote cultural development, making him a key figure in the Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture during his reign.
Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912. It was established by the Manchu people and marked a significant period of cultural development, territorial expansion, and interaction with the West, shaping modern Chinese history in profound ways.
Qing Dynasty Painting: Qing Dynasty Painting refers to the artistic styles and practices that flourished during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) in China. This period saw a blend of traditional Chinese painting techniques with new influences brought by the Manchu rulers, leading to diverse genres and styles, including court painting, landscape, and figure painting, as well as the incorporation of Western artistic elements.
Rulin waishi: Rulin waishi refers to a genre of Chinese literature that emerged during the Ming and Qing dynasties, characterized by its focus on the lives and experiences of scholars or literati. This genre often includes satirical elements, critiquing the societal norms and bureaucratic systems of the time, particularly in relation to the Confucian ideals that scholars were expected to uphold.
Siku quanshu: Siku quanshu, or the 'Complete Library of the Four Treasuries,' was a monumental collection of Chinese literature and philosophy compiled during the Qing Dynasty. This extensive anthology aimed to preserve and organize the vast knowledge of earlier dynasties, reflecting the Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture by promoting Confucian texts and suppressing non-Confucian works. The project involved a massive undertaking of collecting, editing, and printing thousands of texts, ultimately shaping the landscape of Chinese scholarship.
Sinicization: Sinicization refers to the process by which non-Chinese societies or cultures adopt Chinese language, customs, values, and social practices. This phenomenon often occurs through cultural exchange, colonization, or influence, resulting in the transformation of local traditions to align with Chinese norms.
The Plum in the Golden Vase: The Plum in the Golden Vase, also known as 'Jin Ping Mei,' is a Chinese novel written during the Ming dynasty that is renowned for its detailed and explicit depiction of sexuality and social life. This work is significant not just for its literary merit but also for how it reflects the Manchu influence on Chinese literature and culture, illustrating the complexities of morality, class, and human relationships in premodern China.