🏺Intro to Greek and Roman Archaeology Unit 5 – Classical Greece: Athens, Sparta, and Culture

Historical Context

• Ancient Greece emerged from the Dark Ages around 800 BCE, marking the beginning of the Archaic period
• The Archaic period (800-480 BCE) saw the rise of city-states (poleis) and the development of Greek culture and identity
• The Classical period (480-323 BCE) began with the Persian Wars and ended with the death of Alexander the Great, representing the height of Greek civilization
• During the Classical period, Athens and Sparta emerged as the two most powerful city-states, each with distinct political systems and cultures
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta was a turning point in Greek history, weakening both city-states and paving the way for Macedonian conquest
• The Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) followed Alexander the Great's conquests, spreading Greek culture and influence across the Mediterranean and Near East

Key Cities: Athens and Sparta

• Athens, located in Attica, became the cultural and intellectual center of ancient Greece
  • Known for its democracy, art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
  • Home to the Acropolis, a hilltop citadel featuring the Parthenon temple dedicated to Athena
• Sparta, situated in the Peloponnese, was a militaristic society focused on martial prowess and discipline
  • Governed by a unique system with two hereditary kings and a council of elders (gerousia)
  • Spartan men underwent rigorous military training (agoge) from a young age
• The rivalry between Athens and Sparta shaped much of the Classical period, culminating in the Peloponnesian War
• Despite their differences, both cities played crucial roles in defending Greece against the Persian invasions (490-479 BCE)
• The contrasting cultures and values of Athens and Sparta have become symbolic of different aspects of Greek civilization

Political Systems

• Ancient Greek city-states developed various political systems, with Athens and Sparta serving as prime examples
• Athens pioneered democracy, a system in which male citizens participated directly in decision-making through the assembly (ekklesia)
  • The Athenian democracy was led by annually elected officials, such as the strategoi (generals) and archons (magistrates)
  • The boule, a council of 500 citizens, prepared the agenda for the assembly and oversaw daily governance
• Sparta had a unique political system that combined elements of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy
  • Two hereditary kings ruled jointly, with their power checked by the gerousia (council of elders) and the ephors (elected officials)
  • The Spartan assembly (apella) consisted of male Spartan citizens who voted on proposals put forth by the gerousia
• Other Greek city-states experimented with various forms of government, including tyranny (rule by a single individual), oligarchy (rule by a small group), and variations of democracy
• The political systems of ancient Greece laid the foundation for the development of modern democratic principles and practices

Social Structure

• Ancient Greek society was hierarchical, with distinct social classes and roles
• In Athens, the social hierarchy consisted of citizens, metics (resident foreigners), and slaves
  • Male citizens had political rights and could participate in the assembly and hold public office
  • Women, regardless of social class, were excluded from political life and had limited rights
• Sparta had a unique social structure centered around the military
  • Spartan society was divided into three main groups: Spartiates (full citizens), Perioikoi (free non-citizens), and Helots (state-owned serfs)
  • Spartiates were expected to dedicate their lives to military service and were prohibited from engaging in trade or manual labor
• Slavery was widespread in ancient Greece, with slaves performing various tasks in households, agriculture, and industry
• Family and kinship played a central role in Greek society, with the oikos (household) serving as the basic unit of social organization
• Education varied among city-states, with Athens emphasizing a well-rounded education (paideia) and Sparta focusing on military training (agoge)

Art and Architecture

• Classical Greek art and architecture are renowned for their beauty, harmony, and proportion
• The Parthenon, built on the Athenian Acropolis during the 5th century BCE, is an iconic example of Greek architecture
  • Designed by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates and adorned with sculptures by Phidias
  • Exemplifies the Doric order, characterized by simple, sturdy columns and a triangular pediment
• Greek sculpture evolved from the rigid, stylized forms of the Archaic period to the naturalistic, idealized figures of the Classical period
  • Famous sculptures include the Discus Thrower (Myron), the Doryphoros (Polykleitos), and the Venus de Milo
• Vase painting flourished, with black-figure and red-figure techniques used to depict mythological scenes, daily life, and historical events
• The development of the contrapposto stance and the use of drapery to suggest movement and form were significant innovations in Greek art
• Greek art and architecture influenced later artistic movements, such as Hellenistic, Roman, and Neoclassical styles

Literature and Philosophy

• Ancient Greek literature encompasses epic poetry, lyric poetry, drama, history, and philosophy
• Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, were foundational works that shaped Greek culture and identity
• Lyric poets, such as Sappho and Pindar, composed short, personal poems expressing emotions and experiences
• Greek drama emerged in the 6th century BCE and reached its height in the 5th century BCE with the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides (tragedies) and Aristophanes (comedies)
  • Tragedies explored complex themes, such as fate, justice, and the human condition
  • Comedies often satirized contemporary politics and society
• Herodotus and Thucydides established the foundations of historical writing, with Herodotus focusing on the Persian Wars and Thucydides on the Peloponnesian War
• Greek philosophy flourished in the Classical period, with thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle exploring questions of ethics, politics, and metaphysics
  • Socrates, known for his Socratic method of questioning, emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and moral reasoning
  • Plato, Socrates' student, developed the theory of forms and the concept of the ideal state in his dialogues
  • Aristotle, Plato's student, made significant contributions to logic, natural philosophy, and ethics

Military and Warfare

• Warfare played a central role in ancient Greek society, with conflicts between city-states and external threats shaping the course of history
• The hoplite, a heavily armed infantry soldier, was the backbone of Greek armies
  • Hoplites fought in a phalanx formation, a dense array of soldiers protected by overlapping shields
  • The Spartan army, composed of highly trained hoplites, was renowned for its discipline and effectiveness
• The Persian Wars (490-479 BCE) united the Greek city-states against the Persian Empire
  • Key battles included Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE), Salamis (480 BCE), and Plataea (479 BCE)
  • The Greek victory in the Persian Wars enhanced the prestige and power of Athens, leading to the formation of the Delian League
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was a prolonged conflict between Athens and Sparta, involving most of the Greek world
  • The war ended with the defeat of Athens and the establishment of Spartan hegemony
• Innovations in warfare during the Classical period included the development of naval warfare (trireme) and the increased use of light infantry (peltasts) and cavalry
• The Macedonian army, developed by Philip II and Alexander the Great, incorporated elements of Greek warfare and conquered vast territories in the late 4th century BCE

Legacy and Influence

• The achievements and ideas of ancient Greece have had a profound and lasting impact on Western civilization
• The Hellenistic period saw the spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Mediterranean and Near East following the conquests of Alexander the Great
• Greek art and architecture influenced later artistic movements, such as Roman, Renaissance, and Neoclassical styles
• The works of Greek literature, particularly Homer's epics and Greek drama, have been widely translated and continue to be studied and performed
• Greek philosophy laid the foundation for Western philosophical thought, with the ideas of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle influencing subsequent thinkers
• The Greek alphabet, adapted from the Phoenician script, became the basis for the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets
• Greek mathematics, including Euclidean geometry and the work of Archimedes, made significant contributions to the development of science
• The Olympic Games, first held in ancient Greece in honor of Zeus, inspired the modern Olympic movement
• The political systems of ancient Greece, particularly Athenian democracy, have influenced the development of modern democratic principles and practices