🏺Intro to Greek and Roman Archaeology Unit 11 – Late Roman Empire & Rise of Christianity

Historical Context

• The Late Roman Empire spans from the 3rd century CE to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE
• Characterized by political instability, economic challenges, and military threats from external forces (Goths, Huns, Sassanids)
• Diocletian's reforms in the late 3rd century CE attempted to stabilize the empire through administrative and military restructuring
• Constantine I's reign (306-337 CE) marked a significant shift with the legalization and eventual favoring of Christianity (Edict of Milan, 313 CE)
• The empire was divided into Eastern and Western halves for administrative purposes
• The Western Roman Empire faced increasing pressure from Germanic tribes, leading to its gradual decline and ultimate fall in 476 CE
• The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to thrive and experienced a cultural and economic golden age under Justinian I (527-565 CE)

Key Archaeological Sites

• Rome, the capital of the empire, contains numerous Late Roman archaeological sites (Basilica of Maxentius, Arch of Constantine)
• Constantinople, founded by Constantine I in 330 CE, became the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and features significant Late Roman and early Byzantine architecture (Hagia Sophia)
• Trier, a major city in modern-day Germany, was an important imperial residence and contains well-preserved Late Roman monuments (Aula Palatina)
• Ephesus, an ancient city in modern-day Turkey, showcases the transition from classical to Late Roman architecture (Library of Celsus, Church of Mary)
• Palmyra, an oasis city in modern-day Syria, flourished during the Late Roman period and exhibits a blend of Roman and local architectural styles (Temple of Bel, Monumental Arch)
• Ravenna, a city in northern Italy, served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire in its final years and is renowned for its Late Roman and early Byzantine mosaics (Basilica of San Vitale)

Material Culture and Artifacts

• Late Roman pottery, such as African Red Slip ware and Late Roman C ware, provides insights into trade patterns and cultural exchanges
• Glassware, including cage cups and gold glass, demonstrates the high level of craftsmanship and luxury in the Late Roman period
• Textiles, particularly silk and wool, reflect the empire's trade connections and the importance of clothing as a status symbol
• Jewelry and personal adornments, such as crossbow fibulae and gold necklaces, showcase the evolving styles and cultural influences of the era
• Coins, like the solidus introduced by Constantine I, offer valuable information about political, economic, and religious aspects of Late Roman society
• Military equipment, including armor, weapons, and horse fittings, sheds light on the changing nature of warfare and the increasing influence of "barbarian" cultures

Religious Shifts and Syncretism

• The rise of Christianity during the Late Roman period led to significant changes in religious practices and beliefs
  • Constantine I's conversion and the Edict of Milan (313 CE) paved the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion
  • The Council of Nicaea (325 CE) sought to establish a unified Christian doctrine
• Pagan religions, such as the cult of Mithras and the worship of Isis, continued to coexist with Christianity for some time
• Syncretism, the blending of different religious traditions, was common in the Late Roman period
  • The cult of Sol Invictus, promoted by Emperor Aurelian (270-275 CE), incorporated elements from various solar deities
  • The Philae Temple in Egypt showcases the merging of Egyptian and Greco-Roman religious iconography
• The rise of monasticism, as exemplified by the Monastery of Saint Catherine in Sinai, reflects the growing ascetic movement within Christianity
• The gradual Christianization of the empire led to the repurposing of pagan temples and the construction of new churches (Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome)

Urban Development and Architecture

• Late Roman cities experienced significant changes in layout and architecture, reflecting the shifting priorities and needs of the time
• The construction of defensive walls became increasingly important due to growing external threats (Aurelian Walls in Rome, Theodosian Walls in Constantinople)
• Public spaces, such as forums and bathhouses, continued to play a central role in urban life but often underwent modifications or fell into disrepair
• The development of Christian architecture, particularly basilicas and churches, transformed the urban landscape (Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome)
• Palace complexes, such as Diocletian's Palace in Split, Croatia, demonstrate the grandeur and luxury of imperial residences
• The use of brick and concrete in construction became more widespread, leading to new architectural forms and techniques (Basilica of Maxentius in Rome)
• Urban infrastructure, including aqueducts and sewage systems, continued to be maintained and expanded in some areas (Valens Aqueduct in Constantinople)

Social and Political Changes

• The Late Roman period saw a gradual shift in social hierarchies and the distribution of power
• The rise of the equestrian class and the decline of the traditional senatorial aristocracy led to changes in administration and land ownership
• The increasing influence of the military in political affairs, particularly during the 3rd century CE, contributed to instability and the rapid succession of emperors
• The division of the empire into smaller administrative units (dioceses and provinces) aimed to improve governance and tax collection
• The growth of the bureaucracy and the creation of new official positions (magister officiorum, comes sacrarum largitionum) reflected the centralization of power
• The development of the colonate system, in which tenant farmers were tied to the land, had significant implications for agriculture and rural society
• The Gothic Wars and the settlement of "barbarian" tribes within the empire's borders led to cultural and social transformations (Visigoths, Ostrogoths)

Artistic Transformations

• Late Roman art witnessed a shift from classical ideals towards more abstract and symbolic representations
• The use of frontal poses, hierarchical scaling, and stylized features became more prevalent in sculpture and painting
• Mosaics, such as those found in the Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily, showcase the intricate designs and narratives of the period
• The development of illuminated manuscripts, particularly biblical texts, marked the beginning of a new artistic medium (Codex Sinaiticus)
• Ivory carvings, often depicting religious scenes or consular diptychs, demonstrate the high level of craftsmanship and the importance of luxury objects
• The emergence of distinctly Christian iconography, such as the Chi-Rho symbol and the image of the Good Shepherd, reflects the growing influence of Christianity on art
• The incorporation of "barbarian" motifs and styles, such as animal interlace and chip carving, highlights the cultural exchanges taking place within the empire

Legacy and Influence

• The Late Roman Empire laid the foundation for the development of medieval Europe and the Byzantine Empire
• The spread of Christianity during this period had a lasting impact on Western culture, art, and literature
• The codification of Roman law under Justinian I (Corpus Juris Civilis) served as a basis for legal systems in many European countries
• The preservation and transmission of classical knowledge, particularly through monastic scriptoria, contributed to the intellectual heritage of the Middle Ages
• The Late Roman army's tactics and organization influenced the military structures of subsequent empires and kingdoms
• The architectural innovations of the Late Roman period, such as the use of domes and vaults, had a lasting impact on Byzantine and Islamic architecture
• The artistic styles and motifs developed during the Late Roman period, such as the use of gold and glass tesserae in mosaics, continued to inspire artists in later centuries
• The political and social changes of the Late Roman Empire, including the decentralization of power and the rise of regional identities, set the stage for the emergence of feudalism in medieval Europe