All Study Guides Intro to Epistemology Unit 3
🤓 Intro to Epistemology Unit 3 – Skepticism: Ancient Greek to Modern ResponsesSkepticism, a cornerstone of epistemology, questions our ability to know anything with certainty. From ancient Greek thinkers to modern philosophers, skeptical arguments have challenged our beliefs about knowledge, perception, and reality.
This unit explores key skeptical concepts, historical developments, and responses to skepticism. We'll examine influential arguments like Descartes' evil demon and Hume's problem of induction, as well as contemporary debates in epistemology and their practical implications.
Key Concepts and Definitions
Skepticism questions the possibility of knowledge or certainty
Epistemology studies the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge
Pyrrhonian skepticism suspends judgment about all beliefs
Academic skepticism denies the possibility of certain knowledge
Cartesian skepticism doubts the reliability of sensory experience (evil demon argument)
Agrippa's trilemma presents three unsatisfactory options for justifying beliefs (infinite regress, circular reasoning, or arbitrary assumption)
Epistemic justification provides reasons or evidence for a belief
Internalism holds that justification depends on factors internal to the believer
Externalism holds that justification can depend on external factors beyond the believer's awareness
Reliabilism is a form of externalism that ties justification to reliable belief-forming processes
Historical Context of Skepticism
Ancient Greek philosophers (Pyrrho, Arcesilaus, Carneades) developed early forms of skepticism
Hellenistic period saw the rise of competing philosophical schools (Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism)
Medieval philosophy grappled with the relationship between faith and reason
Renaissance thinkers revived interest in ancient skeptical arguments
Enlightenment philosophers (Descartes, Hume) raised new skeptical challenges
Descartes' methodological doubt sought to find a foundation for knowledge
Hume questioned the justification of inductive reasoning and causality
20th-century philosophers (Moore, Wittgenstein) responded to skeptical arguments
Contemporary epistemology continues to engage with skeptical issues
Ancient Greek Skepticism
Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270 BCE) is considered the founder of skepticism
Emphasized suspension of judgment (epoché) and tranquility (ataraxia)
Argued that we cannot know the true nature of things beyond appearances
Academic skepticism developed in Plato's Academy under Arcesilaus and Carneades
Arcesilaus (c. 315-240 BCE) criticized Stoic epistemology and argued against the possibility of certain knowledge
Carneades (c. 214-129 BCE) introduced the idea of probable reasoning and degrees of justification
Aenesidemus (1st century BCE) revived Pyrrhonian skepticism and formulated the Ten Modes of skepticism
Sextus Empiricus (c. 160-210 CE) compiled skeptical arguments in his Outlines of Pyrrhonism
Distinguished between appearance and reality
Argued that for every argument, there is an equal and opposite argument
Ancient skeptics challenged dogmatic claims to knowledge in various fields (perception, ethics, metaphysics)
Medieval and Renaissance Skepticism
Augustine (354-430) grappled with skeptical arguments but ultimately affirmed the possibility of knowledge through divine illumination
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) used skeptical arguments to challenge Aristotelian philosophy and argue for the supremacy of divine revelation
Renaissance thinkers such as Montaigne (1533-1592) and Sanches (1551-1623) revived ancient skeptical themes
Montaigne's Essays explored the limits of human knowledge and the diversity of customs and beliefs
Sanches' Quod Nihil Scitur ("That Nothing Is Known") argued against the possibility of scientia (certain knowledge)
Reformation debates about religious authority and interpretation fueled skeptical attitudes
The rediscovery of ancient texts (Sextus Empiricus) stimulated skeptical thinking
Skeptical arguments were used to undermine traditional authorities and encourage intellectual humility
Modern Skeptical Arguments
Descartes' evil demon argument raises the possibility that all our beliefs could be false
Even beliefs based on clear and distinct perception might be deceived by an all-powerful deceiver
Hume's problem of induction questions the justification of inductive inferences
No amount of observed regularities can logically guarantee future regularities
Inductive reasoning relies on the unjustified assumption of the uniformity of nature
Hume's skepticism about causation challenges our ability to know necessary connections between events
We only observe constant conjunctions, not causal powers or necessary connections
The problem of the external world questions our knowledge of mind-independent reality
The veil of perception (sense-data) seems to screen off direct access to external objects
Goodman's new riddle of induction illustrates the underdetermination of theory by evidence
Mutually incompatible hypotheses ("green" vs. "grue") can fit all past observations equally well
Quine's indeterminacy of translation thesis suggests there is no fact of the matter about meaning
Behavioral evidence alone cannot fix determinate meanings or rule out incompatible translation manuals
Responses to Skepticism
G.E. Moore's common sense philosophy appeals to the certainty of everyday knowledge claims
The skeptic's premises are less plausible than the commonsense beliefs they purport to undermine
Contextualism holds that knowledge attributions are context-sensitive
In ordinary contexts, knowledge claims are true and skeptical scenarios irrelevant
In skeptical contexts, knowledge claims are false and skeptical possibilities salient
Relevant alternatives theory argues that knowledge requires ruling out only relevant, not all logically possible, alternatives
Externalist theories (reliabilism, tracking theories) allow for knowledge without internalistically accessible justification
Reliably formed true beliefs can count as knowledge even if the believer cannot cite supporting reasons
Tracking theories (Nozick) require that beliefs be sensitive to the truth (S believes p only if p)
Disjunctivist theories deny a common element between veridical and non-veridical experiences
In the good case, perceivers are directly aware of mind-independent objects, not sense-data
Pragmatic responses emphasize the impracticality or self-defeating nature of skepticism
Skepticism undermines the presuppositions of rational inquiry and action
Belief is unavoidable in practice, even if not justified by skeptical standards
Practical Implications
Skepticism can promote intellectual humility and openness to alternative views
Recognizing the fallibility of human reason can temper dogmatism and encourage inquiry
Suspension of judgment may lead to tranquility and freedom from anxiety
Skeptical arguments can be used to challenge unjustified authorities or prejudices
Skepticism about moral realism may support moral anti-realism or non-cognitivism
If there are no objective moral facts, moral judgments may be seen as expressions of attitudes rather than truth-apt beliefs
Skepticism can motivate epistemic reforms or methodological improvements
The scientific method can be seen as a way of mitigating skeptical worries through empirical testing and replication
Radical skepticism may lead to relativism, nihilism, or pessimism about the possibility of knowledge
Pyrrhonian skepticism as a way of life emphasizes suspending belief, following appearances, and living undogmatically
Current Debates and Future Directions
Disagreement between neo-Pyrrhonists (Fogelin) and neo-Mooreans (Sosa) on the viability of skepticism
Neo-Pyrrhonists see skepticism as a permanent challenge to knowledge claims
Neo-Mooreans defend common sense and the possibility of knowledge in the face of skeptical arguments
Integrating insights from cognitive science and psychology into epistemological theories
Studying the actual processes of belief formation and reasoning, not just idealized norms
Accounting for implicit biases, heuristics, and motivated reasoning in theories of justification
Virtue epistemology focuses on intellectual character traits rather than individual beliefs
Intellectual virtues (open-mindedness, curiosity, intellectual humility) as conducive to knowledge
Intellectual vices (dogmatism, closed-mindedness, wishful thinking) as obstacles to knowledge
Social epistemology examines the social dimensions of knowledge production and transmission
Investigating the effects of social position, power relations, and institutions on knowledge claims
Studying the epistemology of testimony, disagreement, and expertise
Feminist epistemology challenges traditional conceptions of objectivity and impartiality
Arguing for the situatedness of knowers and the role of social identity in shaping epistemic perspectives
Developing alternative epistemologies (standpoint theory, epistemologies of resistance)
Applying skeptical arguments to new domains (self-knowledge, memory, perception, a priori reasoning)
Skeptical theism questions the inference from apparent evil to the non-existence of God
Moral skepticism challenges the existence of objective moral facts or the possibility of moral knowledge