Glossary

8.4 The Fourth Century BCE: Political and Social Changes

5 min read•august 13, 2024

The fourth century BCE marked a pivotal shift in ancient Greece. As traditional city-states like Athens and Sparta declined, Macedon rose to power under Philip II. This period saw major political changes, with Philip's conquest of Greece ending the era of independent poleis.

Socially and economically, Greece transformed too. replaced , trade expanded, and new philosophical schools emerged. These changes set the stage for Alexander the Great's conquests and the dawn of the Hellenistic era.

Rise of Macedon and Decline of City-States

Shift in Power Balance

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  • The fourth century BCE witnessed a shift in the balance of power in the Greek world, with the decline of traditional city-states like Athens and Sparta and the under Philip II
  • The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) weakened the major Greek city-states (Athens and Sparta), creating a power vacuum that allowed the rise of new powers like Thebes and eventually Macedon

Philip II's Expansion of Macedonian Influence

  • exploited the weakened city-states, using military force, diplomacy, and bribery to expand Macedonian influence and control over Greece
  • The in 338 BCE, where Philip II defeated a coalition of Greek city-states led by Athens and Thebes, effectively marked the end of the era of independent city-states and the beginning of Macedonian hegemony
  • Philip II formed the in 337 BCE, which brought the Greek city-states under Macedonian control and paved the way for Alexander the Great's eventual conquest of the Persian Empire

Social and Economic Changes in Greece

Shift Towards Mercenary Armies

  • The fourth century BCE brought significant social and economic changes in the Greek world, partly driven by the political upheavals of the period
  • The decline of the traditional city-state model led to a shift away from citizen militias and towards the use of professional, mercenary armies, which became increasingly important in the conflicts of the period

Expansion of Trade and Economic Complexity

  • The rise of Macedon and Alexander the Great's conquests opened up new trade routes and markets, leading to an increase in long-distance trade and the growth of a more complex, interconnected economy
  • The influx of wealth from conquest and trade led to the rise of a new class of wealthy elites, who often used their resources to fund public works, patronize the arts, and engage in conspicuous consumption (lavish banquets, expensive clothing)

Emergence of New Social and Philosophical Movements

  • The fourth century BCE saw the emergence of new social and philosophical movements, such as the Cynics and the , which challenged traditional Greek values and ways of life
  • These movements questioned conventional notions of virtue, happiness, and the role of the individual in society, contributing to a more diverse and dynamic intellectual landscape

Influence of Philosophical Schools

Plato's Academy

  • The fourth century BCE was a golden age of Greek philosophy, with the establishment of major philosophical schools that would influence Western thought for centuries to come
  • Plato, a student of Socrates, founded the Academy in Athens around 387 BCE, which became a center of philosophical and scientific study and attracted scholars from across the Greek world
    • The Academy emphasized the study of mathematics, astronomy, and metaphysics, and its curriculum was based on Plato's theory of Forms
    • Notable students of the Academy included Aristotle, who would go on to found his own school, the Lyceum

Aristotle's Lyceum

  • Aristotle established the Lyceum in Athens around 335 BCE, which became a major center of scientific and philosophical study
    • The Lyceum emphasized empirical observation and the study of the natural world, and its curriculum was based on Aristotle's works on logic, biology, physics, and metaphysics
    • The Lyceum attracted students from across the Greek world and beyond, and its influence can be seen in the works of later philosophers (Theophrastus, Strato)

Impact on Greek Intellectual Life

  • The philosophical debates and innovations of the fourth century BCE had a profound impact on Greek intellectual life, shaping the development of fields such as ethics, politics, and natural philosophy
  • The ideas and methods developed in the Academy and Lyceum would continue to influence philosophical and scientific thought for centuries, laying the foundation for the Hellenistic period and beyond

Significance of Philip II's Reign

Transformation of Macedon

  • Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 BCE) was a pivotal figure in Greek history whose reign set the stage for the conquests of his son, Alexander the Great
  • Philip II transformed Macedon from a relatively minor kingdom into a major power through a combination of military reforms, diplomatic maneuvering, and strategic conquests
    • He reorganized the Macedonian army, introducing the sarissa (a long pike) and the cavalry as key elements of his military strategy
    • He used diplomacy and bribery to gain influence over the Greek city-states, particularly in the aftermath of the Third Sacred War (356-346 BCE)

Establishment of Macedonian Hegemony

  • Philip's victory over the Greek city-states at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE effectively ended the era of the independent city-state and established Macedonian hegemony over Greece
  • The League of Corinth, formed by Philip in 337 BCE, brought the Greek city-states under Macedonian control and provided a platform for the planned invasion of the Persian Empire
    • Although Philip was assassinated before he could launch the invasion, his son Alexander was able to use the resources and alliances created by his father to carry out his legendary conquests (Persian Empire, Egypt, India)

Legacy and Impact

  • Philip's reign marked a turning point in Greek history, as the center of power shifted from the city-states to the Macedonian monarchy, setting the stage for the Hellenistic period that would follow Alexander's conquests
  • The military, political, and diplomatic innovations introduced by Philip II laid the foundation for the creation of a vast Hellenistic world, which would spread Greek culture and influence across the Mediterranean and beyond

Key Terms to Review (19)

Aristotle's Lyceum: Aristotle's Lyceum was a philosophical school founded by Aristotle in Athens around 335 BCE, which became a prominent center for learning and inquiry during the Fourth Century BCE. This institution emphasized empirical observation and scientific study, significantly influencing the development of Western philosophy and science. Aristotle's teachings at the Lyceum also reflected the political and social changes of the time, as they encouraged critical thinking and debate about ethics, politics, and natural sciences.
Battle of Chaeronea: The Battle of Chaeronea was a significant military engagement fought in 338 BCE between the forces of Macedon, led by Philip II, and a coalition of Greek city-states, primarily Athens and Thebes. This battle marked a turning point in ancient Greek history, as it effectively ended the independence of the Greek city-states and established Macedonian hegemony over Greece, setting the stage for further conquests by Philip's son, Alexander the Great.
Citizen Militias: Citizen militias were military organizations composed of ordinary citizens who were trained to defend their communities, especially in times of war or crisis. In the context of the Fourth Century BCE, these militias emerged as a response to the need for local defense and the increasing instability in the region, playing a crucial role in shaping both political and social structures.
Coinage: Coinage refers to the system of producing and issuing coins as a medium of exchange, typically made from metal, to facilitate trade and commerce. The introduction of coinage transformed economic practices by providing a standardized unit of value, which simplified transactions and contributed to the growth of markets. Its development was closely tied to political and social changes, influencing not only economic structures but also cultural exchanges and societal interactions.
Cynicism: Cynicism is a philosophical school that emerged in ancient Greece, advocating for a life lived in accordance with nature and characterized by a rejection of societal conventions and materialism. This philosophy emphasized self-sufficiency, virtue, and living in harmony with one’s true self rather than conforming to social expectations. Cynicism became particularly relevant during periods of political instability and social change, encouraging individuals to question traditional values and pursue a more authentic existence.
Epicureans: Epicureans are followers of the philosophical teachings of Epicurus, who emphasized the pursuit of happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures, the cultivation of friendships, and the pursuit of knowledge. In the context of the Fourth Century BCE, this philosophy emerged as a response to the social and political upheaval of the time, promoting a life of moderation and tranquility as a way to navigate the uncertainties of an increasingly complex world.
Greek Tragedy: Greek tragedy is a form of dramatic art that originated in ancient Greece, characterized by serious themes, moral dilemmas, and the downfall of its protagonists. It often features a chorus and explores complex human emotions and social issues, reflecting the values and beliefs of its time. The genre played a crucial role in shaping Greek culture and influenced various aspects of society, including politics and philosophy.
Hoplite Warfare: Hoplite warfare refers to the military system used by the ancient Greek hoplites, heavily armed foot soldiers who fought in a phalanx formation. This style of warfare was characterized by its focus on discipline, organization, and the use of the spear and shield, which allowed for collective strength in battle. The rise of hoplite warfare significantly impacted the political and social structures in Greece, particularly during the fourth century BCE and within the militaristic society of Sparta.
League of Corinth: The League of Corinth was a coalition of Greek city-states formed in 337 BCE under the leadership of Philip II of Macedon. This league aimed to unite the various Greek states in a common front against Persia, promoting both political stability and military cooperation among its members. The League not only symbolized Macedonian dominance but also marked a significant shift in Greek politics during a time of social and political change.
Mercenary armies: Mercenary armies are military forces that are hired to serve in a foreign army or conflict, often motivated by financial gain rather than loyalty to a nation. During the Fourth Century BCE, the rise of these armies reflected significant political and social changes as states increasingly relied on professional soldiers instead of citizen armies. This shift highlighted the growing commercialization of warfare and the decline of traditional military structures in ancient Greek city-states.
Peace of Nicias: The Peace of Nicias was a treaty signed in 421 BCE that aimed to establish a temporary truce between Athens and Sparta, effectively halting hostilities during the Peloponnesian War. This agreement sought to bring stability to the Greek city-states and to allow for a period of rebuilding and diplomacy after years of conflict, while also reflecting the ongoing power struggles and alliances within the Delian League and the wider Hellenic world.
Phalanx formation: The phalanx formation is a military strategy used by ancient Greek armies, characterized by a tight, rectangular formation of heavily armed infantry soldiers called hoplites. This formation emphasized unity and strength, allowing soldiers to fight effectively as a cohesive unit while protecting one another with overlapping shields.
Philip II of Macedon: Philip II of Macedon was the king of the Kingdom of Macedon from 359 to 336 BCE, known for unifying the fractured Greek city-states under his rule and laying the groundwork for the expansion of his son, Alexander the Great. His reign marked a significant period of political and social change in the fourth century BCE, showcasing innovative military strategies and diplomatic marriages that strengthened Macedonian power.
Plato's Academy: Plato's Academy was an influential philosophical institution founded by the philosopher Plato around 387 BCE in Athens. It is regarded as one of the earliest organized schools in Western history, where students gathered to discuss and study philosophy, mathematics, and science, significantly impacting the intellectual landscape of the Fourth Century BCE.
Rise of Macedon: The rise of Macedon refers to the transformation of Macedonia from a small kingdom into a powerful empire under the leadership of Philip II and his son, Alexander the Great, during the 4th century BCE. This period is marked by significant military conquests, political reforms, and cultural advancements that reshaped the ancient Greek world and set the stage for the Hellenistic era.
Socratic Dialogues: Socratic dialogues are a form of philosophical inquiry developed by Socrates, characterized by a conversational method of questioning that aims to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. These dialogues often take the form of discussions between Socrates and his interlocutors, where complex ethical and philosophical concepts are explored through a series of questions and answers, leading to deeper understanding and self-reflection. This method was influential in shaping intellectual discourse during a time of significant political and social changes in ancient Greece.
Socratic Philosophy: Socratic philosophy refers to the method of inquiry and dialogue developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, which focuses on stimulating critical thinking and illuminating ideas through questioning. This approach seeks to challenge assumptions, clarify concepts, and expose contradictions in thought, thus leading to a deeper understanding of ethical and philosophical issues. Socratic philosophy played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the fourth century BCE as it prompted political and social reflection during a time of significant change in Athens and beyond.
Trade networks: Trade networks are systems of interconnected trade routes and economic relationships that facilitate the exchange of goods, services, and cultural practices among different regions. These networks played a crucial role in the development of societies, enabling the flow of resources and fostering economic growth, cultural exchanges, and political relationships.
Treaty of Philocrates: The Treaty of Philocrates was a peace agreement established in 346 BCE between Athens and Philip II of Macedon, aimed at ending hostilities and restoring diplomatic relations. This treaty marked a significant shift in Greek politics during the fourth century BCE, as it represented both a strategic alignment for Athens and an indication of Macedonian influence over Greek city-states.
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