10.1 Theories of second language acquisition
3 min read•july 25, 2024
Second language acquisition theories explore how people learn new languages. Behaviorist, innatist, and interactionist approaches offer different perspectives on this process, each with unique strengths and limitations.
These theories shape how we understand language learning in various contexts. From classrooms to online platforms, they influence teaching methods and help explain why some approaches work better than others for different learners.
Theories of Second Language Acquisition
Theories of second language acquisition
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- Stimulus-response-reinforcement model underpins language learning through habit formation
- Imitation and repetition emphasized as key learning mechanisms
- and pioneered this approach to language acquisition
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- (LAD) posited as innate biological mechanism for language learning
- proposed as set of principles common to all languages
- suggests optimal window for language acquisition
- Distinguishes between unconscious language acquisition and conscious language learning
- 's work foundational to this perspective
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- Social interaction viewed as crucial for language development
- (ZPD) describes gap between learner's current and potential abilities
- in language learning involves temporary support to aid skill development
- occurs as learners clarify communication through interaction
- and significantly contributed to this theory
Input, output, and feedback perspectives
- Input
- Behaviorist: Controlled input facilitates habit formation (audio-lingual drills)
- Innatist: drives acquisition (Krashen's )
- Interactionist: Modified input through interaction enhances understanding (clarification requests)
- Output
- Behaviorist: Immediate production and practice reinforces language patterns (repetition exercises)
- Innatist: Less emphasis on output, focuses on for self-correction
- Interactionist: Output serves as means of hypothesis testing about language rules (trial and error)
- Feedback
- Behaviorist: Immediate error correction prevents bad habit formation (explicit corrections)
- Innatist: Limited role of explicit feedback, natural acquisition process emphasized
- Interactionist: Corrective feedback through negotiation aids learning (recasts, clarification requests)
Strengths and limitations of theories
- Behaviorist Theory
- Strengths
- Explains effectiveness of rote learning and drill-based methods (vocabulary memorization)
- Useful for teaching formulaic expressions (greetings, idioms)
- Limitations
- Fails to account for creativity and novel utterances in language use
- Overlooks complex cognitive processes involved in language learning
- Strengths
- Innatist Theory
- Strengths
- Explains universal patterns observed across languages (subject-verb-object order)
- Accounts for poverty of stimulus argument children acquire complex structures with limited input
- Limitations
- Underestimates role of environmental factors in language development
- Difficult to empirically test concepts like LAD and Universal Grammar
- Strengths
- Interactionist Theory
- Strengths
- Incorporates social and cognitive aspects of learning (peer interactions)
- Explains variability in second language acquisition outcomes
- Limitations
- May not fully account for individual differences in learning styles
- Challenging to operationalize concepts like ZPD in research
- Strengths
Application to real-world contexts
- Classroom settings
- Behaviorist: Pattern drills and audio-lingual method used for pronunciation practice
- Innatist: Content-based instruction and natural approach emphasize meaningful input
- Interactionist: Collaborative learning and task-based activities promote communication
- programs
- Behaviorist: Language labs with repetitive exercises reinforce target structures
- Innatist: Exposure to authentic target language input through daily interactions
- Interactionist: Peer interactions and cultural exchange facilitate language growth
- Online language learning
- Behaviorist: Gamified vocabulary and grammar exercises provide repetitive practice
- Innatist: Extensive reading and listening materials offer comprehensible input
- Interactionist: Virtual language exchange platforms enable real-time communication
- Workplace language training
- Behaviorist: Memorization of industry-specific phrases for immediate use
- Innatist: Exposure to professional documents and conversations provides authentic input
- Interactionist: Role-playing and problem-solving scenarios simulate real work situations
Key Terms to Review (25)
B.F. Skinner: B.F. Skinner was an influential American psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning, which posits that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. His ideas are foundational in understanding how language is acquired and learned, emphasizing the role of reinforcement in the development of verbal behavior and skills.
Behaviorist theory: Behaviorist theory is a psychological framework that emphasizes observable behaviors as the primary means of understanding learning and development, rather than internal mental states. In language acquisition, this theory suggests that children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning, which can be seen in early stages of learning as well as in the acquisition of second languages. This approach highlights the role of the environment and external stimuli in shaping linguistic abilities.
Classroom-based instruction: Classroom-based instruction refers to a structured approach to teaching and learning that occurs in a physical or virtual classroom setting. This method focuses on delivering educational content through various instructional strategies, emphasizing interaction, collaboration, and active participation among students. It serves as a primary environment for second language acquisition, where students can engage with peers and instructors to practice language skills in a meaningful context.
Cognitive strategies: Cognitive strategies are techniques and methods that learners use to process and understand information more effectively. These strategies can include ways to organize thoughts, relate new information to prior knowledge, and employ problem-solving skills to enhance learning and retention. They play a significant role in how individuals acquire language and can be tailored to facilitate language teaching and second language acquisition.
Communicative Competence: Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language effectively and appropriately in various social contexts. This concept goes beyond just knowing grammar and vocabulary; it includes understanding cultural nuances, context, and social norms that influence communication. This competence is essential for meaningful interaction, as it allows individuals to convey their thoughts clearly and respond appropriately to others, thus linking language to real-life situations and social dynamics.
Comprehensible input: Comprehensible input refers to the language input that is understandable to learners while being slightly beyond their current proficiency level. It is essential in language acquisition, as it provides learners with the necessary exposure to new vocabulary and grammatical structures in a context they can grasp, facilitating natural learning processes.
Critical Period Hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis posits that there is a specific time frame in human development during which the acquisition of language occurs most easily and effectively. This idea suggests that if language learning does not take place within this period, typically thought to be from birth until puberty, it becomes significantly more difficult or even impossible to achieve native-like proficiency. This concept connects deeply with theories of how languages are acquired and how second languages are learned, suggesting that age plays a crucial role in language development.
Immersion: Immersion refers to a language learning technique where learners are surrounded by the target language in a natural context, promoting active engagement and use of the language in real-life situations. This approach contrasts with traditional methods that may rely heavily on grammar drills and vocabulary memorization, focusing instead on experiential learning and contextual understanding. By being immersed in the language, learners can develop listening and speaking skills more organically, as well as a deeper cultural understanding of the language being acquired.
Innatist theory: Innatist theory suggests that humans are born with an inherent capacity for language acquisition, positing that the ability to learn language is hardwired in the brain. This perspective emphasizes the role of innate cognitive structures, such as Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar, which claim that all languages share fundamental principles. The innatist approach argues that these built-in mechanisms enable individuals to acquire language naturally and efficiently, regardless of their environment.
Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis, proposed by Stephen Krashen, suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to language input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level, often referred to as 'i+1'. This concept emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input in language learning and connects closely to how language is taught and acquired across different stages and theories.
Instrumental motivation: Instrumental motivation refers to the drive to learn a language for practical or utilitarian purposes, such as obtaining a job, advancing in a career, or fulfilling educational requirements. This type of motivation contrasts with integrative motivation, which is more about connecting with culture and people. Understanding instrumental motivation is essential in discussions about how language is taught and acquired, as it shapes learners' goals and the strategies they use.
Integrative Motivation: Integrative motivation refers to the drive to learn a language based on the desire to connect with and integrate into the culture and community of its speakers. This type of motivation often stems from an interest in understanding and participating in the social, cultural, or emotional aspects tied to the language, making it a crucial factor in effective language acquisition and learning.
Interactionist theory: Interactionist theory is a perspective in language acquisition that emphasizes the role of social interaction and communication in the learning process. This theory suggests that language development is influenced by both innate biological factors and the social environment, highlighting the importance of interaction with caregivers and peers in acquiring language skills.
Language acquisition device: The language acquisition device (LAD) is a theoretical construct proposed by Noam Chomsky that suggests humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language. This device allows children to effortlessly learn the complexities of language, including grammar and vocabulary, through exposure to their linguistic environment. The concept emphasizes the biological predisposition for language learning and the universal aspects of language across different cultures.
Lev Vygotsky: Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist known for his work in developmental psychology and education, particularly regarding the social context of learning. He emphasized the importance of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development, proposing that learning is fundamentally a social process, which has significant implications for second language acquisition.
Metacognitive strategies: Metacognitive strategies are techniques used by learners to understand and control their own learning processes. These strategies include planning how to approach a task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating the effectiveness of learning methods. By developing awareness of their cognitive processes, learners can become more effective in acquiring new skills and knowledge.
Michael Long: Michael Long is a prominent figure in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), known for his contributions to the Interaction Hypothesis, which posits that language acquisition is facilitated through interaction and communication. His work emphasizes the importance of meaningful conversation and negotiation of meaning as crucial elements for effective language learning. Long's research has significantly influenced pedagogical approaches and frameworks in language education.
Monitor Hypothesis: The Monitor Hypothesis is a concept in second language acquisition that suggests learners have two distinct processes for acquiring a language: the 'acquisition' process, which is subconscious and occurs through meaningful communication, and the 'learning' process, which is conscious and involves explicit knowledge of grammar rules. This theory highlights the role of the 'monitor' as a tool that allows learners to edit their speech or writing based on learned rules, ultimately influencing their proficiency.
Negotiation of meaning: Negotiation of meaning refers to the process through which speakers and listeners interact to clarify and reach mutual understanding during communication. This involves asking questions, rephrasing, and providing feedback to ensure that both parties grasp the intended message, which is crucial in both first and second language acquisition as learners develop their language skills and comprehension.
Noam Chomsky: Noam Chomsky is a renowned linguist and cognitive scientist known for revolutionizing the study of language with his theories on syntax and the nature of language acquisition. His work laid the groundwork for understanding the underlying structures of language and how they relate to thought and cognition, influencing various aspects of linguistics, cognitive science, and psychology.
Robert Lado: Robert Lado was a prominent linguist and educator known for his influential work in the field of second language acquisition. He developed the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, which posits that the differences between a learner's native language and the target language can predict learning difficulties. This idea emphasized the importance of understanding both languages to enhance teaching methods and improve language learning outcomes.
Scaffolding: Scaffolding is an instructional technique that involves providing temporary support to learners as they develop new skills or understanding. This concept is vital in language acquisition, where initial assistance is gradually removed as the learner becomes more competent. By utilizing scaffolding, educators can create a supportive environment that encourages independence in language use and comprehension.
Sociolinguistic competence: Sociolinguistic competence is the understanding of how language use varies based on social factors such as context, relationship between speakers, and cultural norms. This competence allows individuals to navigate different social situations effectively, making appropriate language choices that reflect their knowledge of the social dynamics at play.
Universal Grammar: Universal grammar is a theory that suggests all human languages share a common underlying structure, which is innate to the human mind. This concept implies that the ability to acquire language is pre-wired in humans, allowing children to learn any language they are exposed to during their formative years. This idea connects to both how we initially learn our first language and how we approach learning additional languages later in life.
Zone of Proximal Development: The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance or collaboration from a more knowledgeable individual. This concept highlights the importance of social interaction and support in the learning process, suggesting that optimal learning occurs when instruction is tailored to a student's current capabilities while also pushing them toward more advanced skills.