🥗Intro to Nutrition Unit 4 – Digestion, Absorption & Metabolism
Digestion, absorption, and metabolism are crucial processes that transform food into energy and building blocks for our bodies. These interconnected systems break down nutrients, transport them into the bloodstream, and facilitate chemical reactions essential for life.
Understanding these processes helps us make informed dietary choices and maintain overall health. From the mouth to the large intestine, each part of the digestive system plays a vital role in extracting nutrients and energy from the food we consume.
Digestion breaks down food into smaller components (nutrients) that the body can absorb and utilize
Absorption transports nutrients from the digestive tract into the bloodstream for distribution throughout the body
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of cells and organisms
Catabolism breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process
Anabolism builds complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring an input of energy
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) represents the minimum energy required to maintain vital functions at rest
Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) is the energy expended above the BMR due to food consumption and processing
Energy balance occurs when energy intake equals energy expenditure, maintaining body weight
Digestive System Overview
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
The mouth initiates mechanical digestion through chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion with salivary amylase
The esophagus transports food from the mouth to the stomach via peristalsis (rhythmic muscle contractions)
The stomach stores food, mixes it with digestive enzymes (pepsin), and releases it slowly into the small intestine
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach creates an acidic environment, activating pepsin and killing bacteria
The small intestine is the primary site of digestion and absorption, with three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Bile from the liver and gallbladder emulsifies fats, increasing surface area for enzymatic action
Pancreatic enzymes (lipase, amylase, trypsin) break down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, forming and storing feces until elimination
Breakdown of Nutrients
Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) by salivary and pancreatic amylase and brush border enzymes
Proteins are denatured by stomach acid and broken down into amino acids by pepsin (stomach) and trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase (small intestine)
Fats are emulsified by bile and broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are broken down into nucleotides by pancreatic nucleases
Fiber (non-digestible carbohydrates) aids in digestion by promoting regular bowel movements and feeding beneficial gut bacteria
Vitamins and minerals are not chemically altered during digestion but are released from food components for absorption
Digestive enzymes are specific to their substrates, working optimally at certain pH levels and temperatures
Absorption Process
Absorption primarily occurs in the small intestine, with some absorption in the stomach and large intestine
Villi and microvilli in the small intestine increase surface area for efficient absorption
Passive diffusion allows small, non-polar molecules (fatty acids, glycerol) to move down their concentration gradient across the intestinal wall
Facilitated diffusion uses carrier proteins to transport specific molecules (glucose, amino acids) down their concentration gradient
Active transport requires energy (ATP) to move molecules (calcium, iron) against their concentration gradient
Endocytosis involves the engulfing of larger particles or molecules (vitamin B12) by the cell membrane
Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed along with dietary fats and packaged into chylomicrons for transport
Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex, C) are absorbed directly into the bloodstream
Minerals are absorbed through specific transport mechanisms (iron via heme carrier protein, calcium via vitamin D-dependent pathways)
Metabolism Basics
Metabolism is divided into two processes: catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis)
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy currency of the cell, produced during catabolic reactions and consumed during anabolic reactions
Glucose is the body's preferred energy source, with glycolysis being the first step in its catabolic pathway
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces pyruvate and a net gain of 2 ATP
Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
The Krebs cycle produces high-energy molecules (NADH, FADH2) and a small amount of ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) uses NADH and FADH2 to create a proton gradient, driving ATP synthase to produce large amounts of ATP
Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria, producing acetyl-CoA for the Krebs cycle and ATP production
Amino acids can be converted into glucose (glucogenic) or ketone bodies (ketogenic) when needed for energy
Energy Balance
Energy balance is the relationship between energy intake (calories consumed) and energy expenditure (calories burned)
Positive energy balance occurs when intake exceeds expenditure, leading to weight gain and energy storage (adipose tissue)
Negative energy balance occurs when expenditure exceeds intake, leading to weight loss and the breakdown of stored energy (fat, muscle)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the minimum energy required to maintain vital functions at rest and accounts for 60-70% of total daily energy expenditure
Factors affecting BMR include age, sex, body composition, genetics, and hormones (thyroid)
Physical Activity Level (PAL) represents the energy expended through physical activity and exercise, varying based on intensity and duration
Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) is the energy required to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients, accounting for ~10% of total daily energy expenditure
Adaptive thermogenesis is the body's adjustment of energy expenditure in response to changes in energy intake, aiming to maintain energy balance
Digestive Disorders
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) occurs when stomach acid frequently flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and potential damage to the esophageal lining
Peptic ulcers are open sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by Helicobacter pylori bacteria or excessive use of NSAIDs
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten consumption, leading to damage of the small intestine's lining and nutrient malabsorption
Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest lactose (milk sugar) due to a deficiency in the enzyme lactase, causing bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits (diarrhea, constipation)
Diverticulosis is the presence of small pouches (diverticula) in the colon wall, which can become inflamed (diverticulitis) and cause pain, fever, and digestive issues
Nutrition's Impact on Digestion
Fiber promotes digestive health by adding bulk to stools, promoting regular bowel movements, and feeding beneficial gut bacteria (prebiotics)
Soluble fiber (fruits, oats, legumes) dissolves in water and forms a gel-like substance, slowing digestion and increasing feelings of fullness
Insoluble fiber (whole grains, vegetables, nuts) does not dissolve in water and helps to prevent constipation by promoting the movement of material through the digestive tract
Probiotics are live microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts) that, when consumed in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host by supporting the balance of gut microbiota
Fermented foods (yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi) are natural sources of probiotics
Adequate hydration is essential for optimal digestive function, as water helps to dissolve nutrients, soften stools, and prevent constipation
Mindful eating practices (eating slowly, chewing thoroughly, avoiding distractions) can improve digestion by promoting proper mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
Certain foods may trigger digestive issues in sensitive individuals, such as spicy foods, high-fat foods, or foods containing FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols)
A balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats provides the necessary nutrients for maintaining a healthy digestive system