Intro to Nutrition

🥗Intro to Nutrition Unit 4 – Digestion, Absorption & Metabolism

Digestion, absorption, and metabolism are crucial processes that transform food into energy and building blocks for our bodies. These interconnected systems break down nutrients, transport them into the bloodstream, and facilitate chemical reactions essential for life. Understanding these processes helps us make informed dietary choices and maintain overall health. From the mouth to the large intestine, each part of the digestive system plays a vital role in extracting nutrients and energy from the food we consume.

Key Concepts

  • Digestion breaks down food into smaller components (nutrients) that the body can absorb and utilize
  • Absorption transports nutrients from the digestive tract into the bloodstream for distribution throughout the body
  • Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of cells and organisms
  • Catabolism breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process
  • Anabolism builds complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring an input of energy
  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) represents the minimum energy required to maintain vital functions at rest
  • Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) is the energy expended above the BMR due to food consumption and processing
  • Energy balance occurs when energy intake equals energy expenditure, maintaining body weight

Digestive System Overview

  • The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
  • The mouth initiates mechanical digestion through chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion with salivary amylase
  • The esophagus transports food from the mouth to the stomach via peristalsis (rhythmic muscle contractions)
  • The stomach stores food, mixes it with digestive enzymes (pepsin), and releases it slowly into the small intestine
    • Hydrochloric acid in the stomach creates an acidic environment, activating pepsin and killing bacteria
  • The small intestine is the primary site of digestion and absorption, with three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
    • Bile from the liver and gallbladder emulsifies fats, increasing surface area for enzymatic action
    • Pancreatic enzymes (lipase, amylase, trypsin) break down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
  • The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, forming and storing feces until elimination

Breakdown of Nutrients

  • Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) by salivary and pancreatic amylase and brush border enzymes
  • Proteins are denatured by stomach acid and broken down into amino acids by pepsin (stomach) and trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase (small intestine)
  • Fats are emulsified by bile and broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase
  • Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are broken down into nucleotides by pancreatic nucleases
  • Fiber (non-digestible carbohydrates) aids in digestion by promoting regular bowel movements and feeding beneficial gut bacteria
  • Vitamins and minerals are not chemically altered during digestion but are released from food components for absorption
  • Digestive enzymes are specific to their substrates, working optimally at certain pH levels and temperatures

Absorption Process

  • Absorption primarily occurs in the small intestine, with some absorption in the stomach and large intestine
  • Villi and microvilli in the small intestine increase surface area for efficient absorption
  • Passive diffusion allows small, non-polar molecules (fatty acids, glycerol) to move down their concentration gradient across the intestinal wall
  • Facilitated diffusion uses carrier proteins to transport specific molecules (glucose, amino acids) down their concentration gradient
  • Active transport requires energy (ATP) to move molecules (calcium, iron) against their concentration gradient
  • Endocytosis involves the engulfing of larger particles or molecules (vitamin B12) by the cell membrane
  • Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed along with dietary fats and packaged into chylomicrons for transport
  • Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex, C) are absorbed directly into the bloodstream
  • Minerals are absorbed through specific transport mechanisms (iron via heme carrier protein, calcium via vitamin D-dependent pathways)

Metabolism Basics

  • Metabolism is divided into two processes: catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis)
  • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy currency of the cell, produced during catabolic reactions and consumed during anabolic reactions
  • Glucose is the body's preferred energy source, with glycolysis being the first step in its catabolic pathway
    • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces pyruvate and a net gain of 2 ATP
  • Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
    • The Krebs cycle produces high-energy molecules (NADH, FADH2) and a small amount of ATP
  • Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) uses NADH and FADH2 to create a proton gradient, driving ATP synthase to produce large amounts of ATP
  • Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria, producing acetyl-CoA for the Krebs cycle and ATP production
  • Amino acids can be converted into glucose (glucogenic) or ketone bodies (ketogenic) when needed for energy

Energy Balance

  • Energy balance is the relationship between energy intake (calories consumed) and energy expenditure (calories burned)
  • Positive energy balance occurs when intake exceeds expenditure, leading to weight gain and energy storage (adipose tissue)
  • Negative energy balance occurs when expenditure exceeds intake, leading to weight loss and the breakdown of stored energy (fat, muscle)
  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the minimum energy required to maintain vital functions at rest and accounts for 60-70% of total daily energy expenditure
    • Factors affecting BMR include age, sex, body composition, genetics, and hormones (thyroid)
  • Physical Activity Level (PAL) represents the energy expended through physical activity and exercise, varying based on intensity and duration
  • Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) is the energy required to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients, accounting for ~10% of total daily energy expenditure
  • Adaptive thermogenesis is the body's adjustment of energy expenditure in response to changes in energy intake, aiming to maintain energy balance

Digestive Disorders

  • Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) occurs when stomach acid frequently flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and potential damage to the esophageal lining
  • Peptic ulcers are open sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by Helicobacter pylori bacteria or excessive use of NSAIDs
  • Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract
  • Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten consumption, leading to damage of the small intestine's lining and nutrient malabsorption
  • Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest lactose (milk sugar) due to a deficiency in the enzyme lactase, causing bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain
  • Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits (diarrhea, constipation)
  • Diverticulosis is the presence of small pouches (diverticula) in the colon wall, which can become inflamed (diverticulitis) and cause pain, fever, and digestive issues

Nutrition's Impact on Digestion

  • Fiber promotes digestive health by adding bulk to stools, promoting regular bowel movements, and feeding beneficial gut bacteria (prebiotics)
    • Soluble fiber (fruits, oats, legumes) dissolves in water and forms a gel-like substance, slowing digestion and increasing feelings of fullness
    • Insoluble fiber (whole grains, vegetables, nuts) does not dissolve in water and helps to prevent constipation by promoting the movement of material through the digestive tract
  • Probiotics are live microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts) that, when consumed in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host by supporting the balance of gut microbiota
    • Fermented foods (yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi) are natural sources of probiotics
  • Adequate hydration is essential for optimal digestive function, as water helps to dissolve nutrients, soften stools, and prevent constipation
  • Mindful eating practices (eating slowly, chewing thoroughly, avoiding distractions) can improve digestion by promoting proper mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
  • Certain foods may trigger digestive issues in sensitive individuals, such as spicy foods, high-fat foods, or foods containing FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols)
  • A balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats provides the necessary nutrients for maintaining a healthy digestive system


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© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.