🧘Intro to Indian Philosophy Unit 5 – Buddhist Schools: Abhidharma to Yogācāra

Historical Context

• Buddhism emerged in ancient India during the 5th century BCE, a time of significant religious and philosophical exploration
• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the Buddha after attaining enlightenment through meditation and self-realization
• Developed in response to the prevailing Brahmanical traditions, offering a new perspective on the nature of reality and the path to liberation
• Spread rapidly throughout India and beyond, attracting followers from various social classes and regions
• Evolved over time, giving rise to different schools of thought and interpretations of the Buddha's teachings
  • Theravada Buddhism preserved the earliest teachings and emphasized individual liberation
  • Mahayana Buddhism emerged later, introducing new concepts and emphasizing compassion and the bodhisattva ideal

Key Concepts in Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths: the foundation of Buddhist thought, addressing the nature of suffering, its causes, and the path to liberation
  1. Dukkha: the truth of suffering, acknowledging that life is inherently unsatisfactory
  2. Samudaya: the truth of the origin of suffering, identifying craving and ignorance as the root causes
  3. Nirodha: the truth of the cessation of suffering, affirming that liberation is possible
  4. Magga: the truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering, outlining the Eightfold Path
• The Eightfold Path: a practical guide for ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, consisting of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration
• The Three Marks of Existence: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta), highlighting the transient and insubstantial nature of reality
• Dependent Origination (pratītyasamutpāda): the doctrine that all phenomena arise in dependence upon other factors, forming a complex web of causality
• Karma and Rebirth: the belief that one's actions have consequences that extend beyond the present life, influencing future rebirths in the cycle of samsara
• Nirvana: the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, a state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth, characterized by profound peace and insight

Abhidharma School

• Developed in the centuries following the Buddha's death, aiming to systematize and analyze the teachings found in the early Buddhist scriptures
• Focused on providing a detailed analysis of the constituents of reality (dharmas) and their interactions
• Emphasized the momentary nature of existence, with dharmas arising and passing away in rapid succession
• Classified dharmas into various categories, such as the five aggregates (skandhas), the twelve sense bases (āyatanas), and the eighteen elements (dhātus)
• Explored the causal relationships between dharmas, developing complex theories of dependent origination and karma
• Debated the nature of consciousness (vijñāna) and its role in the process of perception and cognition
• Contributed to the development of Buddhist psychology and the understanding of mental states and processes
• Influenced later Buddhist schools, including the Madhyamaka and Yogācāra, which built upon and critiqued Abhidharma concepts

Madhyamaka School

• Founded by Nāgārjuna in the 2nd century CE, emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā) as the ultimate nature of reality
• Challenged the Abhidharma view of inherently existent dharmas, arguing that all phenomena lack independent existence
• Employed the method of reductio ad absurdum (prasaṅga) to demonstrate the logical inconsistencies in the views of opponents
• Developed the Two Truths doctrine, distinguishing between conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya) and ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya)
  • Conventional truth refers to the everyday, relative reality in which phenomena appear to exist independently
  • Ultimate truth points to the emptiness of all phenomena, their lack of inherent existence
• Emphasized the Middle Way (madhyamā-pratipad) between the extremes of existence and non-existence, eternalism and nihilism
• Influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhism, particularly the Prajñāpāramitā literature and the concept of the bodhisattva path
• Critiqued by later Buddhist schools, such as the Yogācāra, for its apparent nihilism and neglect of the conventional reality

Yogācāra School

• Emerged in the 4th century CE, founded by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, emphasizing the primacy of consciousness (vijñāna) in the constitution of reality
• Developed the concept of the ālaya-vijñāna, the storehouse consciousness that contains the seeds (bīja) of past actions and experiences
• Argued that the external world is a projection of consciousness, with objects appearing as mere representations (vijñapti-mātra)
• Distinguished between the imagined nature (parikalpita), the dependent nature (paratantra), and the perfected nature (pariniṣpanna) of phenomena
  • The imagined nature refers to the false attribution of inherent existence to objects
  • The dependent nature points to the interdependent arising of phenomena in relation to consciousness
  • The perfected nature is the ultimate reality, free from conceptual constructions and dualistic thinking
• Emphasized the path of the bodhisattva, with the cultivation of wisdom (prajñā) and compassion (karuṇā) as central practices
• Developed a sophisticated system of Buddhist logic and epistemology, exploring the nature of perception, inference, and language
• Influenced the development of Buddhist tantra and the concept of the Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha)

Philosophical Debates

• The nature of reality: Abhidharma schools debated the existence and classification of dharmas, while Madhyamaka challenged the notion of inherent existence
• The role of consciousness: Yogācāra emphasized the primacy of consciousness in constituting reality, while other schools questioned the idealist implications
• The status of the self: Buddhist schools generally rejected the notion of a permanent, independent self (ātman), but debated the nature of personal identity and continuity
• The nature of causality: Abhidharma schools developed complex theories of causal relations, while Madhyamaka critiqued the notion of inherent causal powers
• The relationship between conventional and ultimate truth: Madhyamaka's Two Truths doctrine sparked debates on the nature of reality and the limits of language and conceptualization
• The path to liberation: Different schools emphasized various aspects of the Buddhist path, such as the cultivation of wisdom, compassion, or meditative absorption
• The nature of the Buddha: Debates arose regarding the ontological status of the Buddha and the relationship between the historical Buddha and the transcendent Dharmakāya
• The interpretation of key Buddhist concepts: Schools offered divergent interpretations of concepts such as emptiness, dependent origination, and the Three Marks of Existence

Influence on Indian Philosophy

• Buddhism challenged the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanical social order, offering a new perspective on the nature of reality and the path to liberation
• The concept of anatta (non-self) influenced the development of the Advaita Vedānta school, which emphasized the ultimate unity of the individual self (ātman) with the universal Brahman
• Buddhist epistemology and logic, particularly the work of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, influenced the development of Indian philosophical discourse and debate
• The Madhyamaka critique of essentialist thinking influenced the development of the Jain doctrine of anekāntavāda (non-one-sidedness) and the Cārvāka school's skepticism
• Buddhist meditation practices, such as mindfulness (smṛti) and concentration (samādhi), were adopted and adapted by various Indian philosophical and religious traditions
• The Buddhist emphasis on compassion and non-violence influenced the development of Indian ethical thought, particularly in the works of Jain and Hindu thinkers
• Buddhist monasteries and universities, such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla, became centers of learning and cultural exchange, attracting scholars from across India and beyond
• The spread of Buddhism beyond India facilitated the cross-pollination of ideas and the development of new philosophical and religious traditions in Central, East, and Southeast Asia

Modern Relevance

• Buddhist mindfulness practices have gained popularity in the West as a means of reducing stress, improving mental health, and cultivating emotional well-being
• The Buddhist emphasis on compassion and non-violence has inspired modern peace activists and social reformers, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Thich Nhat Hanh
• Buddhist concepts, such as emptiness and dependent origination, have been explored in relation to modern scientific theories, such as quantum physics and systems theory
• The Buddhist critique of consumerism and materialism has resonated with modern environmental and social justice movements, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all beings and the need for ethical action
• Buddhist perspectives on the nature of the self and the mind have influenced the development of modern psychology, particularly in the fields of cognitive therapy and neuroscience
• The Buddhist emphasis on experiential knowledge and personal transformation has inspired the development of engaged Buddhism, which seeks to apply Buddhist principles to social and political issues
• Buddhist art and architecture have had a lasting impact on global cultural heritage, with Buddhist temples, stupas, and sculptures serving as important sources of inspiration for modern artists and designers
• The Buddhist approach to death and dying has informed modern hospice and palliative care practices, emphasizing the importance of compassion, acceptance, and spiritual support in the face of mortality