Intro to Hinduism Unit 3 Review: Hindu Cosmology and Philosophy

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Brahman the ultimate reality, the divine ground of existence from which all things originate and to which they return
• Atman the eternal, unchanging self or soul that is identical with Brahman
  • Distinct from the individual ego or personality
• Maya the illusory nature of the phenomenal world that conceals the true reality of Brahman
• Samsara the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth that is driven by karma
• Moksha liberation from samsara and the realization of one's identity with Brahman
  • The ultimate goal of Hindu spiritual practice
• Yoga a set of practices and disciplines aimed at achieving moksha, including meditation, devotion, and selfless action
• Veda the oldest and most authoritative Hindu scriptures, including the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda

Origins and Historical Context

• Hinduism has no single founder or point of origin, but emerged from the religious and cultural traditions of ancient India
• The Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE) practiced early forms of Hinduism, as evidenced by archaeological findings such as the Pashupati seal
• The Vedic period (1500-500 BCE) saw the composition of the Vedas and the development of Vedic religion, which laid the foundations for classical Hinduism
  • Characterized by the worship of deities such as Indra, Agni, and Soma through elaborate sacrificial rituals
• The Upanishads (800-400 BCE) mark a shift towards philosophical speculation and the concept of Brahman as the ultimate reality
• The Bhagavad Gita (c. 200 BCE-200 CE) synthesizes various strands of Hindu thought and emphasizes the importance of devotion (bhakti) and selfless action (karma yoga)
• The Puranas (300-1200 CE) contain mythological stories and teachings that popularized Hinduism among the masses

Major Philosophical Schools

• The Six Orthodox Schools (Shad Darshanas) of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas
  • Samkhya a dualistic system that posits two ultimate realities: purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter)
  • Yoga builds on Samkhya and emphasizes meditation and spiritual practices to achieve moksha
  • Nyaya a system of logic and epistemology that seeks to establish valid means of knowledge
  • Vaisheshika a metaphysical system that analyzes the nature of reality in terms of atoms and categories
  • Mimamsa focuses on the interpretation of Vedic texts and the performance of ritual actions
  • Vedanta the most influential school, which is based on the Upanishads and emphasizes the identity of Atman and Brahman
• Heterodox schools such as Buddhism and Jainism, which reject the authority of the Vedas but share some common concepts with Hinduism
• Bhakti movements (c. 6th-17th centuries CE) emphasized devotion to personal deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti

Cosmic Cycles and Time

• Hindu cosmology conceives of time as cyclical rather than linear, with the universe going through endless cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution
• The basic unit of cosmic time is the yuga, of which there are four: Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga
  • Each yuga represents a progressive decline in morality and spirituality
• One cycle of four yugas is called a mahayuga, lasting 4.32 million human years
• 1,000 mahayugas constitute a kalpa, which is a single day in the life of Brahma, the creator god
  • Each kalpa is followed by an equally long period of dissolution (pralaya) before the next creation begins
• Brahma's lifespan is 100 "years" of 360 kalpas each, after which the entire universe dissolves into Brahman (mahapralaya) before a new cycle begins

Gods and Divine Beings

• Hinduism recognizes a vast pantheon of gods and goddesses, who are seen as manifestations or aspects of the one ultimate reality, Brahman
• The Trimurti the three major deities who represent the cosmic functions of creation (Brahma), preservation (Vishnu), and destruction (Shiva)
  • Brahma the creator god, who brings forth the universe at the beginning of each cycle
  • Vishnu the preserver, who maintains cosmic order and balance, and incarnates on earth as avatars such as Krishna and Rama
  • Shiva the destroyer, who dissolves the universe at the end of each cycle, and is also associated with transformation and regeneration
• The Tridevi the three major goddesses: Saraswati (knowledge and the arts), Lakshmi (wealth and prosperity), and Parvati (power and fertility)
• Numerous other deities associated with specific functions, natural phenomena, or local traditions, such as Ganesha, Hanuman, Surya, and Durga
• Devas celestial beings who inhabit the higher realms and oversee various aspects of the cosmos

Creation Myths and Cosmogony

• Hindu texts contain various accounts of the origin and structure of the universe, reflecting different philosophical and regional traditions
• In the Rigveda, the universe emerges from the primordial being Purusha, who is sacrificed by the gods to create all things
• The Upanishads describe the universe as emanating from Brahman through the power of maya, with Brahman as the ultimate ground of existence
• The Puranas contain elaborate creation stories involving deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva
  • E.g., Brahma creates the universe from a lotus that grows from Vishnu's navel
• The universe is often depicted as a cosmic egg (brahmanda) that undergoes cycles of expansion and contraction
• The physical universe is seen as consisting of five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether
  • These elements combine to form the various objects and beings in the universe

Karma, Dharma, and Reincarnation

• Karma the law of cause and effect that determines an individual's future experiences based on their past actions
  • Good actions lead to positive consequences, while bad actions lead to negative consequences
• Dharma the moral and ethical principles that govern individual and social behavior, based on one's role and stage in life
  • Following one's dharma is seen as essential for maintaining cosmic order and achieving spiritual progress
• Reincarnation the belief that the atman (soul) passes through a series of births and deaths in different physical bodies
  • The nature of one's reincarnation is determined by the karma accumulated in previous lives
• The ultimate goal is to achieve moksha and break free from the cycle of samsara
  • This is achieved through a combination of right action (karma yoga), devotion (bhakti yoga), knowledge (jnana yoga), and meditation (raja yoga)
• The Bhagavad Gita emphasizes the importance of performing one's duties without attachment to the fruits of one's actions as a means of achieving liberation

Modern Interpretations and Relevance

• Hinduism has undergone significant changes and adaptations in response to historical and cultural developments
• The 19th-century Hindu Renaissance, led by figures such as Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda, sought to reinterpret Hinduism for the modern world
  • Emphasis on the universality of religious experience and the harmony of different spiritual paths
• Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolence and social reform was deeply influenced by Hindu principles such as ahimsa (non-harm) and satyagraha (truth-force)
• The spread of Hinduism to the West has led to the development of new forms of Hindu spirituality and the incorporation of Hindu ideas into popular culture
• The ecological and environmental teachings of Hinduism, such as the sacredness of nature and the interconnectedness of all beings, have gained renewed relevance in the face of global challenges
• The practice of yoga has become a global phenomenon, often divorced from its Hindu roots but still drawing on key concepts such as mindfulness and self-realization
• Hindu notions of pluralism and the validity of multiple spiritual paths have been influential in the development of interfaith dialogue and understanding