🏔️Intro to Geotechnical Science Unit 1 – Intro to Geotechnical Engineering

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Geotechnical engineering focuses on the behavior of earth materials (soils and rocks) and their interactions with structures and the environment
• Soil mechanics studies the physical properties, behavior, and performance of soils under various loading and environmental conditions
• Effective stress ($\sigma'$) represents the stress carried by the soil skeleton, calculated as the difference between total stress ($\sigma$) and pore water pressure ($u$): $\sigma' = \sigma - u$
• Consolidation is the gradual reduction in volume of a saturated soil due to the dissipation of excess pore water pressure over time
• Shear strength is the maximum shear stress a soil can sustain before failure, dependent on the soil's cohesion ($c$) and internal friction angle ($\phi$)
• Bearing capacity is the maximum load a soil can support without excessive settlement or shear failure, influenced by soil properties, foundation geometry, and loading conditions
• Liquefaction occurs when saturated, loose granular soils lose strength and stiffness due to rapid loading (e.g., earthquakes), causing them to behave like a liquid

Soil Properties and Classification

• Soil composition includes solid particles (minerals and organic matter), water, and air, with the proportions varying depending on the soil type and environmental conditions
• Particle size distribution (gradation) classifies soils based on the relative proportions of different particle sizes, typically divided into clay (<0.002 mm), silt (0.002-0.075 mm), sand (0.075-4.75 mm), and gravel (>4.75 mm)
  • Well-graded soils have a wide range of particle sizes, while poorly-graded soils have a narrow range or are missing certain size fractions
  • Uniformity coefficient ($C_u$) and coefficient of curvature ($C_c$) quantify the gradation of a soil
• Atterberg limits define the consistency of fine-grained soils based on their moisture content, including the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), and shrinkage limit (SL)
  • Plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit, indicating the range of moisture content over which a soil exhibits plastic behavior
• Soil classification systems, such as the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the AASHTO system, group soils with similar engineering properties based on their particle size distribution and plasticity characteristics
• In-situ soil structure, including the arrangement of particles, pore spaces, and bonding, significantly influences soil behavior and properties
• Soil compaction increases soil density by reducing air voids, improving strength, stiffness, and resistance to settlement
  • Optimum moisture content (OMC) is the water content at which maximum dry density is achieved for a given compaction effort

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals

• Stresses in soils can be represented by the Mohr's circle, which graphically illustrates the relationship between normal stress ($\sigma$) and shear stress ($\tau$) on any plane within the soil mass
• Effective stress principle states that the behavior of a soil is governed by the effective stress ($\sigma'$), which is the stress carried by the soil skeleton
• Consolidation theory describes the time-dependent deformation of soils under loading, considering the dissipation of excess pore water pressure and the compressibility of the soil skeleton
  • Coefficient of consolidation ($c_v$) characterizes the rate at which excess pore water pressure dissipates, depending on the soil's permeability and compressibility
  • Preconsolidation pressure ($p_c$) is the maximum effective stress a soil has experienced in its history, influencing its compressibility and strength
• Shear strength of soils can be described by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion: $\tau = c + \sigma' \tan \phi$, where $c$ is cohesion and $\phi$ is the internal friction angle
  • Drained conditions allow pore water to flow in or out of the soil during loading, while undrained conditions prevent pore water flow
• Soil permeability (hydraulic conductivity) governs the flow of water through soil pores, influenced by factors such as particle size, void ratio, and fluid properties
  • Darcy's law relates the flow rate to the hydraulic gradient and cross-sectional area, with the proportionality constant being the soil's permeability
• Soil compressibility describes the volume change of a soil under applied stress, characterized by the compression index ($C_c$) for normally consolidated soils and the recompression index ($C_r$) for overconsolidated soils

Field and Laboratory Testing

• Site investigation and soil characterization are essential for understanding soil properties and conditions at a project site, guiding design and construction decisions
• Field tests provide in-situ measurements of soil properties, such as strength, stiffness, and permeability, without the need for sampling and laboratory testing
  • Standard Penetration Test (SPT) measures the resistance of soil to the penetration of a standard sampler, providing an estimate of soil density and strength
  • Cone Penetration Test (CPT) continuously measures the resistance to penetration of a conical tip and the friction along a sleeve, providing detailed soil profiles and estimates of strength and stiffness
  • Vane Shear Test (VST) measures the undrained shear strength of soft to medium clays by rotating a four-bladed vane and measuring the torque required to cause shear failure
• Laboratory tests are performed on soil samples obtained from the field to determine various physical and mechanical properties under controlled conditions
  • Grain size analysis (sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis) determines the particle size distribution of a soil sample
  • Atterberg limits tests (liquid limit and plastic limit) assess the plasticity and consistency of fine-grained soils
  • Compaction tests (Standard Proctor and Modified Proctor) determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a soil for a given compaction effort
  • Consolidation tests (one-dimensional consolidation test) measure the time-dependent settlement of a soil sample under applied loads
  • Direct shear and triaxial shear tests measure the shear strength parameters (cohesion and internal friction angle) of a soil under different stress conditions
• Sampling techniques, such as disturbed sampling (bulk samples) and undisturbed sampling (thin-walled tube samples), are used to obtain representative soil specimens for laboratory testing
  • Sample quality and disturbance can significantly affect the measured soil properties, requiring careful handling and preservation techniques

Groundwater and Seepage

• Groundwater is water that exists beneath the Earth's surface in soil pores and rock fractures, with the water table representing the upper surface of the saturated zone
• Aquifers are permeable geological formations that store and transmit significant quantities of groundwater, classified as confined (bounded by impermeable layers) or unconfined (bounded by the water table)
• Hydraulic head is the sum of the elevation head and pressure head, representing the total energy of groundwater at a given point
  • Flow nets are graphical representations of equipotential lines (lines of equal hydraulic head) and flow lines (paths of groundwater flow), used to analyze seepage patterns and calculate flow quantities
• Seepage refers to the flow of water through soil pores, governed by Darcy's law and influenced by the soil's permeability and the hydraulic gradient
  • Seepage forces can cause soil erosion, piping, and instability in earth structures such as dams, levees, and excavations
  • Dewatering techniques, such as wellpoints, deep wells, and cutoff walls, are used to control groundwater flow and maintain stability during construction
• Capillarity is the rise of water above the water table in fine-grained soils due to surface tension and adhesion forces, influencing soil moisture distribution and unsaturated soil behavior
• Frost action in soils can cause heaving, thawing, and loss of strength in cold regions, requiring consideration of frost depth, soil susceptibility, and mitigation measures in geotechnical design

Soil Strength and Stability

• Bearing capacity is the maximum load a soil can support without excessive settlement or shear failure, dependent on soil strength, foundation geometry, and loading conditions
  • Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory provides a framework for calculating the ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations based on soil cohesion, friction angle, and surcharge
  • Deep foundations (piles and drilled shafts) transfer loads to competent soil or rock layers at depth, with their capacity determined by the soil-pile interaction and the structural capacity of the foundation elements
• Slope stability analysis assesses the potential for slope failures (landslides) in natural or engineered slopes, considering the balance between driving forces (gravity) and resisting forces (soil strength)
  • Limit equilibrium methods, such as the method of slices, calculate the factor of safety against slope failure by comparing the available shear strength to the equilibrium shear stress along potential failure surfaces
  • Reinforcement techniques, such as geosynthetics, soil nailing, and anchors, can improve slope stability by increasing the resisting forces and reducing the driving forces
• Earth pressure theories (Rankine and Coulomb) describe the lateral pressures exerted by soils on retaining structures, such as walls and excavation support systems
  • Active earth pressure occurs when the wall moves away from the soil, allowing the soil to expand and mobilize its shear strength
  • Passive earth pressure occurs when the wall moves towards the soil, causing the soil to compress and generate higher lateral pressures
• Soil liquefaction can cause significant damage to structures and infrastructure during earthquakes, as the soil loses its strength and stiffness, leading to excessive deformations and instability
  • Liquefaction susceptibility depends on factors such as soil type (loose, saturated sands), groundwater conditions, and the intensity and duration of ground shaking
  • Mitigation measures, such as ground improvement (densification, drainage) and foundation design (deep foundations, ground modification), can reduce the risk of liquefaction-related damage

Geotechnical Applications

• Shallow foundations, such as spread footings and mats, are used to support structures where competent soil layers are present near the surface
  • Foundation design considers the bearing capacity, settlement, and structural requirements, with the goal of providing a safe, stable, and economical support system
• Deep foundations, including driven piles and drilled shafts, are used to transfer loads to competent soil or rock layers at depth when shallow foundations are not feasible
  • Pile and shaft design involves the selection of appropriate materials, dimensions, and installation methods based on the soil conditions, loading requirements, and constructability constraints
• Retaining walls, such as gravity walls, cantilever walls, and mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, are used to support soil and maintain grade changes in various applications (e.g., transportation, landscaping, and waterfront structures)
  • Wall design considers the earth pressures, surcharge loads, and external stability (overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity) to ensure the long-term performance and safety of the structure
• Excavation support systems, including soldier pile and lagging, sheet pile walls, and diaphragm walls, are used to maintain the stability of temporary or permanent excavations in soil and rock
  • Support system design involves the selection of appropriate materials, spacing, and bracing elements based on the soil conditions, groundwater control, and construction sequencing
• Ground improvement techniques are used to enhance the properties and performance of problematic soils, such as soft clays, loose sands, and collapsible soils
  • Techniques include densification (compaction, vibro-compaction), drainage (prefabricated vertical drains, sand drains), reinforcement (stone columns, geosynthetics), and chemical stabilization (grouting, soil mixing)
• Geosynthetics, such as geotextiles, geogrids, and geomembranes, are polymeric materials used in various geotechnical applications for separation, filtration, reinforcement, and containment
  • Geosynthetic design involves the selection of appropriate material properties, layout, and installation methods based on the specific application and performance requirements

Challenges and Future Trends

• Sustainability and environmental considerations are becoming increasingly important in geotechnical engineering, driving the development of green and resilient solutions
  • Sustainable practices include the use of recycled materials, waste reduction, energy efficiency, and the minimization of environmental impacts during construction and operation
  • Climate change adaptation strategies are needed to address the impacts of rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and changing soil conditions on geotechnical infrastructure
• Urbanization and population growth are creating new challenges for geotechnical engineers, as the demand for infrastructure development in challenging soil conditions and confined spaces increases
  • Urban geotechnics focuses on the unique challenges of construction in densely populated areas, such as the interaction between new and existing structures, the management of underground space, and the mitigation of construction impacts on adjacent properties
• Advances in technology, such as remote sensing, geophysical methods, and data analytics, are transforming the way geotechnical data is collected, analyzed, and utilized for design and decision-making
  • Geotechnical information systems (GIS) and building information modeling (BIM) enable the integration of geotechnical data with other project information, facilitating collaboration, risk management, and asset management throughout the project lifecycle
• Performance-based design approaches are gaining traction in geotechnical engineering, focusing on the achievement of specific performance objectives rather than prescriptive criteria
  • Performance-based design considers the uncertainties in soil properties, loading conditions, and construction processes, and utilizes probabilistic methods and risk assessment to optimize design solutions
• Interdisciplinary collaboration is becoming increasingly important in addressing complex geotechnical challenges, requiring the integration of expertise from various fields such as geology, hydrology, seismology, and materials science
  • Collaborative research and innovation are needed to develop new materials, technologies, and design methodologies that can improve the resilience, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness of geotechnical solutions