💰Intro to Finance Unit 9 – Capital Structure Decisions

What's Capital Structure?

• Refers to the mix of debt and equity a company uses to finance its operations and growth
• Includes long-term debt (bonds, loans) and equity (common stock, preferred stock, retained earnings)
• Expressed as a debt-to-equity ratio or as percentages of total capital
• Impacts a company's financial risk, cost of capital, and potential returns for investors
• Can vary significantly between industries and even between companies within the same industry
  • Capital-intensive industries (manufacturing, utilities) tend to have higher debt ratios
  • Service-based industries (consulting, software) often have lower debt ratios
• Managers aim to find an optimal capital structure that maximizes firm value and minimizes the cost of capital
• Represents a key strategic decision for company management and has long-term implications for the business

Why Capital Structure Matters

• Directly affects a company's financial risk and the required return for investors
  • Higher debt levels increase financial risk and required returns
  • Lower debt levels generally mean lower risk and required returns
• Impacts a company's ability to invest in growth opportunities and weather economic downturns
• Affects the cost of capital, which is the weighted average of the costs of debt and equity financing
  • Optimal capital structure minimizes the cost of capital, maximizing firm value
• Influences a company's cash flow and ability to meet financial obligations
  • Interest payments on debt are mandatory, while dividend payments are discretionary
• Sends signals to investors and analysts about a company's financial health and growth prospects
• Can impact a company's valuation multiples (price-to-earnings ratio) and stock price performance
• Plays a role in corporate governance and the alignment of management and shareholder interests
  • Debt can serve as a disciplining mechanism for managers, reducing agency costs

Debt vs. Equity: The Basics

• Debt represents borrowed money that must be repaid with interest
  • Examples include bonds, bank loans, and credit lines
  • Interest payments are tax-deductible, providing a "tax shield" benefit
  • Debt holders have a prior claim on assets and cash flows in the event of bankruptcy
• Equity represents ownership in a company and a claim on its residual cash flows
  • Includes common stock, preferred stock, and retained earnings
  • Equity holders are last in line for claims on assets and cash flows in bankruptcy
  • Dividends paid to equity holders are not tax-deductible
• Debt is generally cheaper than equity due to tax deductibility and lower required returns
  • However, excessive debt increases financial risk and the likelihood of financial distress
• Equity provides a "cushion" for debt holders and reduces financial risk
  • However, equity financing can dilute existing shareholders and may signal overvaluation
• Companies often use a mix of debt and equity to balance the benefits and costs of each

Modigliani-Miller Theorem

• Developed by Franco Modigliani and Merton Miller in 1958
• States that, under certain assumptions, a company's value is unaffected by its capital structure
  • Assumes perfect capital markets, no taxes, no transaction costs, and no bankruptcy costs
• Proposition I: A company's value is determined by its real assets, not by how those assets are financed
  • Implies that capital structure is irrelevant in a perfect market
• Proposition II: A company's cost of equity increases linearly with its debt-to-equity ratio
  • Implies that the benefits of cheaper debt are offset by the higher required return on equity
• In reality, the assumptions of the theorem do not hold due to market imperfections
  • Taxes, transaction costs, bankruptcy costs, and agency costs all impact capital structure decisions
• Nevertheless, the theorem provides a useful starting point for analyzing capital structure
  • Highlights the importance of focusing on a company's underlying business and cash flows

Real-World Factors Affecting Capital Structure

• Taxes: Interest payments on debt are tax-deductible, creating a "tax shield" benefit
  • Higher corporate tax rates make debt financing more attractive
• Financial distress costs: High debt levels increase the risk of bankruptcy and financial distress
  • Companies with volatile cash flows or intangible assets face higher distress costs
• Agency costs: Conflicts of interest between shareholders and managers can impact financing decisions
  • Debt can help align manager and shareholder interests by reducing free cash flow
• Asymmetric information: Managers may have better information about a company's prospects than investors
  • Equity issuance may signal that managers believe the stock is overvalued
• Growth opportunities: Companies with valuable growth options may prefer equity financing to avoid debt overhang
  • Debt overhang occurs when high debt levels discourage investment in positive NPV projects
• Asset tangibility: Companies with more tangible assets can support higher debt levels
  • Tangible assets serve as collateral and reduce the risk for lenders
• Industry factors: Capital structure norms vary across industries due to differences in business risk and asset types
  • Companies often benchmark their capital structure against industry peers

Optimal Capital Structure

• Represents the mix of debt and equity that maximizes a company's value and minimizes its cost of capital
• Balances the benefits of debt (tax shield, lower cost) with the costs (financial distress, agency costs)
• Varies across companies and industries depending on specific circumstances and risk profiles
• Can be estimated using the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) formula:
  • $WACC = (E/V) * R_e + (D/V) * R_d * (1-T_c)$
  • Where:
    • $E$ = market value of equity
    • $D$ = market value of debt
    • $V$ = total market value of the firm (E + D)
    • $R_e$ = cost of equity
    • $R_d$ = cost of debt
    • $T_c$ = corporate tax rate
• Companies should aim to maintain a capital structure close to their optimal level over time
  • May require adjusting financing mix as business conditions change
• Deviating significantly from the optimal capital structure can destroy shareholder value
  • Underleverage: Failing to capture the benefits of cheaper debt financing
  • Overleverage: Exposing the company to excessive financial risk and distress costs

Financial Leverage and Risk

• Financial leverage refers to the use of debt in a company's capital structure
  • Measured by the debt-to-equity ratio or the debt-to-total capital ratio
• Leverage amplifies the impact of changes in operating income on earnings per share (EPS)
  • Positive operating leverage: EPS increases more than proportionally with operating income
  • Negative operating leverage: EPS decreases more than proportionally with operating income
• Higher financial leverage increases the volatility of EPS and the risk for equity holders
  • Magnifies the potential gains and losses for shareholders
• Excessive financial leverage can lead to financial distress and bankruptcy risk
  • Companies may struggle to meet interest and principal payments during economic downturns
• Managers must carefully balance the benefits and risks of financial leverage
  • Use scenario analysis and stress testing to assess the impact of leverage on EPS and solvency
• Credit rating agencies (Moody's, S&P) assess the creditworthiness of companies based on their leverage and ability to service debt
  • Higher leverage generally translates to lower credit ratings and higher borrowing costs

Practical Applications and Examples

• Apple Inc. (AAPL): Known for its conservative capital structure and large cash reserves
  • As of Q1 2023, Apple had a debt-to-equity ratio of 1.71 and a cash balance of $165 billion
  • Strong cash flow and low financial risk allow Apple to invest heavily in R&D and strategic acquisitions
• ExxonMobil Corporation (XOM): Capital-intensive oil and gas industry requires significant debt financing
  • As of Q1 2023, ExxonMobil had a debt-to-equity ratio of 0.43 and total debt of $47 billion
  • Substantial tangible assets (oil reserves, refineries) support higher debt levels
• Tesla, Inc. (TSLA): High-growth company in the capital-intensive automotive industry
  • As of Q1 2023, Tesla had a debt-to-equity ratio of 0.37 and total debt of $13 billion
  • Relies on a mix of debt and equity financing to fund rapid expansion and new product development
• Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs): Required by law to distribute 90% of taxable income as dividends
  • High payout ratios necessitate significant use of debt financing for property acquisitions and development
  • Stable rental income and tangible real estate assets support higher debt levels
• Startups and early-stage companies: Often rely heavily on equity financing from venture capital and angel investors
  • Limited operating history and cash flow make debt financing difficult to obtain
  • Equity financing allows for rapid growth and flexibility, but dilutes founder and early shareholder ownership