🗿Intro to Cultural Anthropology Unit 5 – Subsistence and Economic Systems

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Subsistence strategies involve the methods and practices used by human societies to obtain food and other essential resources for survival
• Economic systems encompass the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within a society
• Foraging societies rely on hunting, gathering, and fishing for subsistence without significant food storage or surplus
• Pastoralism involves the herding and management of domesticated animals for food, clothing, and other resources
• Horticulture utilizes small-scale, low-intensity farming methods with simple tools and minimal surplus production
• Agriculture involves intensive cultivation of crops using advanced tools, irrigation, and other technologies to produce significant surpluses
• Intensive agriculture maximizes crop yields through the use of advanced technologies, irrigation, and specialized labor
• Extensive agriculture involves farming large areas of land with minimal labor and technological inputs

Types of Subsistence Strategies

• Foraging is the oldest subsistence strategy, relying on wild plants and animals for food (berries, roots, fish, game)
• Pastoralism involves the herding of domesticated animals for food, clothing, and other resources (cattle, sheep, goats)
  • Nomadic pastoralism requires regular movement to find suitable grazing areas for animals
  • Transhumance is a form of pastoralism involving seasonal migration between fixed locations
• Horticulture is small-scale, low-intensity farming using simple tools (digging sticks, hoes) and minimal surplus production (yams, taro, cassava)
• Agriculture is intensive cultivation of crops using advanced tools, irrigation, and other technologies to produce significant surpluses (wheat, rice, maize)
  • Intensive agriculture maximizes crop yields through the use of advanced technologies, irrigation, and specialized labor (terracing, raised fields)
  • Extensive agriculture involves farming large areas of land with minimal labor and technological inputs (slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation)
• Mixed subsistence strategies combine elements of foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, and agriculture to adapt to specific environmental conditions and cultural preferences

Economic Systems in Different Cultures

• Reciprocity involves the exchange of goods and services based on social obligations and relationships (gift-giving, sharing)
  • Generalized reciprocity occurs within close-knit groups and does not require immediate or equal returns
  • Balanced reciprocity involves direct, equal exchanges between parties
• Redistribution is the collection and reallocation of resources by a central authority (chiefs, kings, governments)
• Market exchange involves the trade of goods and services based on supply, demand, and prices
  • Barter is the direct exchange of goods or services without the use of money
  • Commodity money uses valuable objects (shells, beads, livestock) as a medium of exchange
  • Currency is a standardized form of money issued by a central authority and used for transactions
• Subsistence-based economies prioritize meeting the basic needs of the community over profit or surplus production
• Capitalist economies are driven by private ownership, profit maximization, and market competition

Factors Influencing Subsistence Patterns

• Environmental factors such as climate, geography, and resource availability shape subsistence strategies
  • Foraging is more common in regions with abundant wild resources (rainforests, coastal areas)
  • Pastoralism is adapted to grasslands and semi-arid regions suitable for grazing animals
• Technological innovations enable societies to extract resources more efficiently and adapt to new environments
  • Agriculture developed independently in multiple regions (Fertile Crescent, China, Mesoamerica) following the domestication of plants and animals
  • Irrigation systems allowed for the cultivation of crops in arid regions (Nile River Valley, Indus Valley)
• Population density and growth influence the intensity and scale of subsistence activities
  • Larger populations require more intensive and productive subsistence strategies to meet their needs
• Cultural values, beliefs, and social structures shape economic practices and decision-making
  • Religious beliefs may dictate the use or avoidance of certain resources (sacred cows in Hinduism)
  • Gender roles often determine the division of labor in subsistence activities (women as gatherers, men as hunters)

Social Organization and Economic Activities

• Kinship and family structures shape the organization of labor and the distribution of resources
  • Extended families and clans may cooperate in subsistence activities and share resources
  • Marriage alliances can facilitate economic cooperation and exchange between groups
• Political systems and leadership roles influence the coordination and management of economic activities
  • Chiefs and other leaders may organize communal labor projects (building irrigation systems, clearing fields)
  • Centralized states can mobilize resources and labor on a large scale for public works and monuments
• Social stratification and inequality emerge with the development of surplus production and wealth accumulation
  • Elites may control access to resources and labor, leading to the emergence of class distinctions
  • Slavery and other forms of forced labor can be used to extract resources and generate wealth for elites
• Trade and exchange networks connect societies and facilitate the movement of goods, ideas, and technologies
  • Long-distance trade routes (Silk Roads, Indian Ocean trade) linked diverse cultures and economies
  • Trade can stimulate economic specialization and the development of new industries (textile production, metalworking)

Cultural Adaptations to Environmental Challenges

• Societies develop unique subsistence strategies and technologies to adapt to their specific environmental contexts
  • Arctic peoples (Inuit, Sami) rely on hunting marine mammals and reindeer herding in harsh polar environments
  • Desert communities (Bedouin, Tuareg) practice nomadic pastoralism and oasis agriculture in arid regions
• Traditional ecological knowledge is passed down through generations, enabling societies to manage resources sustainably
  • Indigenous peoples in the Amazon use shifting cultivation and agroforestry to maintain soil fertility and biodiversity
  • Pacific Islanders (Hawaiians, Polynesians) developed complex systems of aquaculture and fishpond management
• Cultural practices and social institutions help mitigate environmental risks and uncertainties
  • Potlatch ceremonies among Northwest Coast Indigenous peoples redistribute wealth and resources within the community
  • Pastoralist societies (Maasai, Mongolians) use social networks and reciprocal relationships to cope with droughts and other hazards
• Environmental changes and resource scarcity can drive cultural and economic adaptations
  • The collapse of the Maya civilization has been linked to prolonged droughts and unsustainable agricultural practices
  • The adoption of potato cultivation in Europe following the Columbian Exchange transformed agricultural systems and diets

Global Economic Interactions and Change

• European colonialism and imperialism transformed subsistence patterns and economic systems worldwide
  • The Atlantic slave trade displaced millions of Africans and fueled plantation economies in the Americas
  • Colonial policies of resource extraction and cash crop production disrupted traditional subsistence practices in Asia and Africa
• Globalization and the expansion of capitalist markets have led to the commodification of resources and labor
  • The demand for tropical crops (coffee, sugar, bananas) has driven the growth of export-oriented agriculture in developing countries
  • Sweatshop labor and outsourcing have shifted manufacturing to low-wage regions, altering local economies and labor relations
• Economic development and modernization have transformed traditional subsistence patterns and social structures
  • The Green Revolution introduced high-yielding crop varieties and chemical inputs, increasing agricultural productivity but also exacerbating inequalities
  • Urbanization and industrialization have drawn people away from rural subsistence activities and into wage labor
• Global economic institutions and policies shape the distribution of wealth and resources between nations
  • The World Bank and International Monetary Fund provide loans and development assistance, but often with conditions that prioritize market liberalization
  • Free trade agreements (NAFTA, TPP) have facilitated the movement of goods and capital across borders, but also generated concerns about job losses and environmental impacts

Case Studies and Real-World Examples

• The Hadza of Tanzania continue to practice foraging in the face of encroaching development and land use changes
  • Hadza subsistence relies on hunting game (antelope, baboons) and gathering wild plants (berries, tubers)
  • Increasing pressure from agriculture, tourism, and resource extraction threatens Hadza land rights and way of life
• The Maasai of East Africa have adapted their pastoralist practices to changing environmental and economic conditions
  • Maasai herders traditionally relied on cattle for subsistence and social status, moving seasonally to find grazing areas
  • Land privatization, conservation efforts, and market integration have pushed many Maasai to diversify their livelihoods (agriculture, wage labor)
• The Ifugao of the Philippines have maintained a complex system of terraced rice cultivation for centuries
  • Ifugao rice terraces are an example of intensive agriculture, maximizing yields in a mountainous environment
  • The terraces are irrigated by an elaborate network of canals and are recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site
• The Kuna of Panama have developed a successful model of indigenous-led conservation and ecotourism
  • Kuna communities manage their own protected areas and regulate tourism activities to preserve their culture and environment
  • The sale of traditional handicrafts (molas) provides an important source of income for Kuna women and supports conservation efforts
• The Amish of North America maintain a distinctive agricultural lifestyle based on religious beliefs and cultural traditions
  • Amish communities practice small-scale, diversified farming without the use of modern technologies (tractors, electricity)
  • The Amish economy is characterized by a high degree of self-sufficiency, mutual aid, and resistance to market integration