Rewriting and adaptation are two of the most common ways authors engage with intertextuality. When a writer takes an existing story and reshapes it for a new audience, medium, or purpose, they're participating in a literary conversation that stretches back centuries. Understanding how and why writers do this helps you analyze the relationship between any text and its sources.
Rewriting vs. Adaptation
These two terms overlap, but they point to different creative acts.
Rewriting means creating a new version of an existing story, often with significant changes to characters, plot, or themes. The new work stays in the same medium as the original. Think of a novelist retelling a Greek myth as a contemporary novel.
Adaptation means translating a story from one medium to another, such as turning a novel into a film or a stage play into a TV series. The core story carries over, but the creator has to rethink how it works within the new medium's strengths and constraints.
Both processes involve creative reinterpretation. And in practice, most adaptations also involve some degree of rewriting, since changing the medium almost always means changing elements of the story itself.
Purposes of Rewriting
Updating Classic Stories
- Modernizing settings, language, or cultural references to make a story more relatable to contemporary audiences
- Addressing outdated or problematic elements of the original work, such as rigid gender roles or racial stereotypes
- Introducing new perspectives or interpretations that resonate with current social, political, or cultural issues
Reimagining Characters or Plots
- Exploring alternate outcomes or "what if" scenarios that diverge from the original story
- Developing minor characters or subplots in greater depth, giving voice to figures the original left in the background
- Combining elements from multiple source texts to create a unique narrative (mashups, crossovers)
Exploring New Themes
A rewriting can use the framework of a familiar story to examine ideas the original never addressed. A retelling of a fairy tale might foreground environmentalism; a reimagined myth might center questions of social justice.
Writers also use rewriting to highlight themes that were present but underrepresented in the original, or to directly subvert the source material's values. When Jean Rhys wrote Wide Sargasso Sea (1966), she took a minor character from Jane Eyre and used her story to challenge the colonial assumptions embedded in Brontë's novel.
Adaptation Across Media
Novel to Film
Films have to condense. A 500-page novel can't fit into two hours without cutting subplots, merging characters, or streamlining the narrative arc. At the same time, film gains tools the novel doesn't have: casting, cinematography, musical score, and visual design that can convey in seconds what a page of prose describes.
- Examples: Pride and Prejudice (2005), The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003)
Stage to Screen
Theater relies on a fixed space, live performance, and conventions like monologues and soliloquies. Moving to screen means the story can expand in scale, use close-ups for emotional nuance, and shift between locations freely. The challenge is preserving the theatrical energy that made the original work.
- Examples: Fences (2016), Hamilton (2020)
Video Game to Film or TV
This is one of the trickiest adaptation paths. Video games are built around interactivity and player agency. Translating that into a linear narrative means the adaptation has to find other ways to create engagement, while also developing the game world's visual style for a passive viewing experience.
- Examples: The Witcher (2019–), The Last of Us (2023–)
Fidelity in Adaptation
Strict vs. Loose Adaptations
Strict adaptations aim to faithfully reproduce the plot, characters, and themes of the source material with minimal changes. Loose adaptations take greater creative liberties, sometimes diverging so far that the connection to the original becomes more thematic than structural.
Neither approach is inherently better. A strict adaptation can feel lifeless if it's just transcribing the source without understanding what made it work in its original medium. A loose adaptation can feel disconnected if it strays so far that the source material becomes irrelevant.
Fan Expectations and Reactions
Fans of the source material often have strong opinions about fidelity. Deviations can be met with backlash, especially when changes seem to misunderstand what made the original compelling. The most successful adaptations tend to balance faithfulness to the spirit of the original with creative choices that justify the adaptation's existence as its own work.
Rewriting and Intertextuality
Rewriting is one of the most visible forms of intertextuality. Here are the main ways rewritten works connect back to their sources:
Allusions and References
These are subtle nods that acknowledge the source material or related works. They might take the form of familiar quotes, imagery, or structural parallels. The Lion King (1994) draws clear parallels to Hamlet. Bridget Jones's Diary (2001) mirrors the plot structure of Pride and Prejudice, right down to a character named Darcy.
Parody and Satire
Parody exaggerates or mocks the conventions of a genre or specific work for comedic effect. Satire uses that humor to critique the themes, values, or assumptions of the source material. The Scary Movie franchise (2000–2013) parodies horror film tropes, while Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2009 novel, 2016 film) uses genre mashup to satirize Regency-era social norms.
Homage and Tribute
An homage pays respect to an influential work by emulating its style, techniques, or storytelling approaches. Unlike parody, the tone is reverent rather than mocking. Star Wars (1977) pays homage to Akira Kurosawa's The Hidden Fortress (1958). Stranger Things (2016–) is built as a tribute to 1980s sci-fi and horror films.
Cultural Significance of Rewriting
Rewriting and Representation
Rewriting gives authors the chance to update stories with more diverse and inclusive representation. This can mean centering characters and experiences that the original marginalized or ignored entirely. The Wiz (1978) reimagined The Wizard of Oz with an all-Black cast and a Motown-influenced score. Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon (1983) retold Arthurian legend from the perspectives of its female characters.
Rewriting and Diversity
Adaptation can also promote cultural diversity by bringing stories from underrepresented communities to wider audiences. Coco (2017) drew on Mexican culture and Día de los Muertos traditions. Mulan (1998/2020) adapted a Chinese legend for global audiences. These works introduce viewers to storytelling forms and perspectives they might not otherwise encounter.
Rewriting and Social Commentary
Familiar stories make powerful vehicles for social commentary because audiences already know the framework. That recognition lets the writer focus attention on what's changed and why. The Handmaid's Tale (2017–) uses Margaret Atwood's dystopian novel to comment on gender oppression in ways that feel urgently contemporary. Watchmen (2019) expanded on the original graphic novel to explore themes of racism and police brutality in American history.
Controversies in Rewriting
Accusations of Plagiarism
The line between rewriting and plagiarism depends on credit and transparency. Rewriting acknowledges its source; plagiarism conceals it. Problems arise when creators fail to properly credit the original work or reproduce substantial portions without permission. The relationship between Kimba the White Lion (1965) and The Lion King (1994) remains one of the most debated examples.
Disrespect to Source Material
Some adaptations make changes that fundamentally alter or undermine the themes, characters, or intentions of the original. This becomes especially sensitive when the source material holds cultural or religious significance. Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014) was criticized for whitewashing biblical figures, and Avatar: The Last Airbender (2010) was accused of misrepresenting the Asian cultures that inspired the animated series.
Rewriting and Cultural Appropriation
Adapting stories from marginalized cultures without proper understanding, context, or representation raises serious ethical questions. The concern is that dominant cultures profit from or exploit the heritage of underrepresented communities without meaningful reciprocity. The Last Samurai (2003) has been criticized for perpetuating the "white savior" trope, and Disney's Peter Pan (1953) is widely recognized for its stereotypical portrayal of Native Americans.
Notable Examples of Rewriting
Modern Retellings of Myths
- O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000): a loose adaptation of Homer's Odyssey set in the Depression-era American South
- The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller (2011): reimagines the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus
- Circe by Madeline Miller (2018): explores the life of the titular goddess from a feminist perspective
Reimagined Fairy Tales
- The Bloody Chamber by Angela Carter (1979): a collection of subversive, feminist reinterpretations of classic fairy tales
- Wicked by Gregory Maguire (1995): retells The Wizard of Oz from the Wicked Witch's perspective
- Maleficent (2014): offers a sympathetic backstory for the villain of Sleeping Beauty
Contemporary Takes on Classics
- Clueless (1995): a modern-day Emma by Jane Austen, set in Beverly Hills
- 10 Things I Hate About You (1999): Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew reimagined in a 1990s high school
- Bridget Jones's Diary by Helen Fielding (1996): a contemporary romantic comedy loosely based on Pride and Prejudice