🦫Intro to Chemical Engineering Unit 1 – Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Chemical engineering applies principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to solve practical problems
• Unit operations involve physical changes (distillation, drying, evaporation, crystallization) and are the building blocks of chemical processes
• Transport phenomena encompasses the study of momentum, heat, and mass transfer in chemical processes
• Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations, crucial for understanding chemical processes and reactor design
• Reaction kinetics is the study of chemical reaction rates and mechanisms, essential for designing and optimizing chemical reactors
• Process control involves monitoring and adjusting process variables (temperature, pressure, flow rate) to maintain desired operating conditions
• Mass balance is the accounting of material entering and leaving a system, based on the conservation of mass principle
• Energy balance accounts for energy inputs, outputs, and accumulation within a system, based on the first law of thermodynamics

Fundamental Principles of Chemical Engineering

• Conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical process, only transformed
• Conservation of energy dictates that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy principle
• Second law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy and states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time
• Chemical equilibrium is the state in which the forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, resulting in no net change in concentrations
• Ideal gas law ($PV = nRT$) relates pressure, volume, amount, and temperature of an ideal gas
• Dalton's law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each component
• Raoult's law relates the vapor pressure of a solution to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent and the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution
• Henry's law describes the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature and pressure

Mass and Energy Balances

• Mass balances are performed on individual process units and the overall process to track the flow of materials
• General mass balance equation: $Accumulation = Input - Output + Generation - Consumption$
  • For steady-state processes, accumulation is zero
• Energy balances account for heat, work, and chemical energy changes in a process
• General energy balance equation: $Accumulation = Input - Output + Generation - Consumption$
  • Heat and work are forms of energy that can be transferred across system boundaries
• Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that represents the total heat content of a system
  • Changes in enthalpy are used to calculate heat transfer in processes at constant pressure
• Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree
  • Specific heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit mass (J/kg·K)
• Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released during a phase change (vaporization, fusion) at constant temperature
• Hess's law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the pathway or intermediate steps

Thermodynamics in Chemical Processes

• Thermodynamics deals with the interrelationships between heat, work, and other forms of energy in chemical processes
• Gibbs free energy ($G$) is a thermodynamic potential that determines the spontaneity of a process at constant temperature and pressure
  • A negative change in Gibbs free energy indicates a spontaneous process
• Entropy ($S$) is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system
  • The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of the universe always increases for a spontaneous process
• Enthalpy of reaction ($\Delta H_{rxn}$) is the heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction at constant pressure
• Entropy of reaction ($\Delta S_{rxn}$) is the change in entropy for a chemical reaction
• Gibbs free energy of reaction ($\Delta G_{rxn}$) relates the enthalpy and entropy changes of a reaction: $\Delta G_{rxn} = \Delta H_{rxn} - T\Delta S_{rxn}$
  • Equilibrium constant ($K$) is related to the Gibbs free energy change: $\Delta G_{rxn} = -RT \ln K$
• Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle that represents the maximum efficiency for a heat engine operating between two temperatures
  • Carnot efficiency sets the upper limit for the efficiency of real heat engines and power plants

Fluid Mechanics and Transport Phenomena

• Fluid mechanics deals with the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest and in motion
• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow or deformation
  • Newtonian fluids (water, air) have a constant viscosity, while non-Newtonian fluids (polymers, suspensions) have a viscosity that depends on shear rate
• Reynolds number ($Re$) is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the flow regime (laminar, transitional, or turbulent)
  • $Re = \frac{\rho v D}{\mu}$, where $\rho$ is density, $v$ is velocity, $D$ is characteristic length, and $\mu$ is viscosity
• Pressure drop in fluid flow is caused by friction, changes in elevation, and changes in velocity
  • Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and elevation changes for incompressible, inviscid flow
• Navier-Stokes equations are the fundamental equations that describe the motion of viscous fluids
  • Simplifications (Hagen-Poiseuille equation) can be used for steady, laminar flow in pipes
• Fick's laws of diffusion describe the transport of mass due to concentration gradients
  • Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration gradient, while Fick's second law describes the time-dependent concentration changes
• Fourier's law of heat conduction relates the heat flux to the temperature gradient in a material
• Convective heat and mass transfer involve the transport of energy or mass between a surface and a moving fluid
  • Convective transfer coefficients depend on fluid properties, flow conditions, and geometry

Reaction Kinetics and Reactor Design

• Reaction kinetics is the study of the rates and mechanisms of chemical reactions
• Rate law expresses the relationship between the reaction rate and the concentrations of reactants and products
  • Rate constant ($k$) is a proportionality factor that depends on temperature and the nature of the reaction
• Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant to temperature: $k = A e^{-E_a/RT}$
  • $A$ is the pre-exponential factor, $E_a$ is the activation energy, $R$ is the gas constant, and $T$ is the absolute temperature
• Reaction order determines how the reaction rate depends on the concentration of a particular reactant
  • Zero-order reactions have a constant rate, while first-order reactions have a rate proportional to the reactant concentration
• Catalysts increase the reaction rate by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy
  • Homogeneous catalysts are in the same phase as the reactants, while heterogeneous catalysts are in a different phase
• Batch reactors process a fixed amount of reactants and products, with the composition changing over time
• Continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs) operate at steady state, with continuous inflow and outflow of reactants and products
• Plug flow reactors (PFRs) have a continuous flow of reactants and products, with the composition changing along the reactor length
• Residence time is the average time a reactant spends inside the reactor
  • Residence time distribution (RTD) characterizes the mixing and flow patterns within a reactor

Process Control and Instrumentation

• Process control involves monitoring and adjusting process variables to maintain desired operating conditions and product quality
• Control loop consists of a sensor, controller, and actuator that work together to maintain a process variable at a desired setpoint
  • Feedback control measures the process variable and adjusts the manipulated variable based on the deviation from the setpoint
  • Feedforward control measures disturbances and adjusts the manipulated variable before the process variable is affected
• Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is a common type of feedback controller that combines proportional, integral, and derivative actions
  • Proportional action provides a control signal proportional to the error, integral action eliminates steady-state offset, and derivative action improves the response to rapid changes
• Sensors measure process variables (temperature, pressure, flow rate, level, composition) and convert them into electrical signals
  • Thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors are common temperature sensors
  • Pressure transducers, Bourdon tubes, and capacitance manometers measure pressure
  • Orifice plates, Venturi meters, and Coriolis flow meters measure flow rates
• Actuators are devices that manipulate the process based on the control signal from the controller
  • Control valves regulate the flow of fluids, while variable speed drives control the speed of pumps and compressors
• Distributed control systems (DCS) and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are computer-based systems used for process control and automation
  • DCS is used for large-scale, continuous processes, while PLCs are used for discrete and batch processes

Safety and Environmental Considerations

• Chemical process safety focuses on preventing accidents, injuries, and environmental damage in chemical plants
• Hazard identification involves recognizing potential sources of harm, such as flammable materials, toxic substances, and high-pressure equipment
  • Material safety data sheets (MSDS) provide information on the properties and hazards of chemicals
• Risk assessment evaluates the likelihood and consequences of potential accidents or releases
  • Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) uses numerical methods to estimate the probability and impact of events
• Inherently safer design aims to eliminate or reduce hazards through the selection of safer materials, processes, and equipment
  • Substitution, minimization, moderation, and simplification are key principles of inherently safer design
• Process hazard analysis (PHA) is a systematic approach to identifying and mitigating process hazards
  • Hazard and operability study (HAZOP) is a common PHA method that examines the effects of deviations from normal operating conditions
• Layers of protection are independent safeguards that prevent or mitigate the consequences of accidents
  • Examples include relief valves, emergency shutdown systems, and containment dikes
• Environmental regulations, such as the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act, set limits on emissions and discharges from chemical plants
  • Best available control technology (BACT) and lowest achievable emission rate (LAER) are standards for air pollution control
• Life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates the environmental impacts of a product or process throughout its entire life cycle, from raw material extraction to disposal
  • LCA helps identify opportunities for reducing environmental burdens and improving sustainability