👩👩👦Intro to Sociology Unit 17 – Government and Politics
Government and politics shape the structures and processes that organize society. This unit explores key concepts like power, authority, and legitimacy, as well as different political systems and institutions.
We examine how power dynamics play out in society, including social stratification and elite theory. The unit also covers political participation, social movements, policy-making, and current issues like globalization and polarization.
Politics involves the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power
Government is the system by which a state or community is governed and includes the institutions, laws, and customs that shape society
Power refers to the capacity or ability to direct or influence the behavior of others or the course of events
Authority is the legitimate power that a person or group has over another, often derived from social position, expertise, or moral standing
Legitimacy is the belief that a government, political system, or leader has the right to govern and that citizens have a corresponding obligation to obey
Legitimacy can be derived from tradition, charisma, or rational-legal authority (based on laws and procedures)
Sovereignty is the supreme power or authority of a state to govern itself and make its own laws without interference from outside forces
Ideology is a system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy
Examples include liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and fascism
Political Systems and Structures
Political systems are the formal and informal political processes by which decisions are made concerning the use, production, and distribution of resources in any given society
Types of political systems include democracies, autocracies, and oligarchies
Democracies are characterized by free and fair elections, protection of civil liberties, and rule of law
Autocracies concentrate power in the hands of a single individual or small group and lack meaningful political competition or checks on power
Oligarchies are ruled by a small group of individuals, often based on wealth, military power, or social status
The structure of a political system refers to the way power is distributed and exercised within a society
Unitary systems concentrate power in a central government, while federal systems divide power between national and subnational governments
Presidential systems separate the executive and legislative branches, while parliamentary systems fuse them together
The state is the political organization that has sovereignty over a defined territory and population
The state has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its borders
The nation refers to a large group of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, or history
The nation-state is a political unit where the state and nation coincide, with a shared sense of national identity
Power Dynamics in Society
Power dynamics refer to the ways in which power is distributed, exercised, and contested within a society
Social stratification is the system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, often based on factors such as wealth, income, race, education, and occupation
Social stratification shapes access to power and resources and can create significant inequalities
Elite theory suggests that a small group of individuals hold a disproportionate amount of power and influence in society, often based on their economic or political resources
Elites may exercise power through formal political institutions, as well as informal networks and behind-the-scenes influence
Pluralism is the idea that power is distributed among many competing groups and interests in society, rather than concentrated in the hands of a single elite
Pluralists argue that the competition between these groups helps to prevent any one group from becoming too dominant
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources (such as money, time, and skills) in shaping the ability of groups to organize and pursue their interests
Social movements are organized efforts by large groups of people to bring about or resist social, political, economic, or cultural change
Social movements often challenge existing power structures and seek to redistribute power and resources in society
Intersectionality is the idea that various forms of social stratification, such as class, race, sexual orientation, age, religion, disability, and gender, do not exist separately from each other but are interwoven
Government Institutions and Functions
The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws, as well as conducting foreign policy
In presidential systems, the executive is led by a directly elected president, while in parliamentary systems, the executive is typically led by a prime minister chosen by the legislature
The legislative branch is responsible for making laws and representing the interests of citizens
Legislatures can be unicameral (with one chamber) or bicameral (with two chambers, often a lower house and an upper house)
Members of the legislature are typically elected by citizens through a system of representation (such as single-member districts or proportional representation)
The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting laws and administering justice
The judiciary is typically independent from the other branches of government to ensure impartiality
In many systems, the judiciary has the power of judicial review, allowing it to strike down laws or executive actions that violate the constitution
Bureaucracy refers to the administrative system of government, composed of appointed officials who implement policies and manage public services
Bureaucracies are often organized into specialized departments or agencies with specific areas of responsibility
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces)
Federalism allows for a balance between national unity and regional diversity, as well as a division of powers and responsibilities between different levels of government
Separation of powers is the division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another
The intent is to prevent the concentration of power and provide for checks and balances
Political Participation and Citizenship
Political participation refers to the activities that citizens undertake to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue
Voting is the most common form of political participation, allowing citizens to choose their representatives and express their preferences
Voter turnout can be influenced by factors such as education, income, age, and the competitiveness of elections
Civic engagement refers to the ways in which citizens participate in the life of a community to improve conditions for others or to help shape the community's future
Examples include volunteering, participating in community organizations, and engaging in local decision-making processes
Political efficacy is the belief that one's political action can have an impact on the political process and that one has a role to play in shaping political outcomes
High levels of political efficacy are associated with greater political participation and engagement
Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire political knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors
Agents of political socialization include family, schools, peers, media, and religious institutions
Citizenship refers to the status of being a member of a particular country and the rights and responsibilities that come with that status
Citizenship can be acquired through birth, descent, naturalization, or other legal means
The rights of citizenship often include the right to vote, the right to hold public office, and the right to protection under the law
Social capital refers to the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively
High levels of social capital are associated with greater civic engagement, trust, and cooperation
Social Movements and Political Change
Social movements are collective actions that aim to bring about or resist social, political, economic, or cultural change
Types of social movements include reform movements (which seek to change specific policies or practices), revolutionary movements (which seek to overthrow entire political systems), and reactionary movements (which seek to resist or reverse social or political change)
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources (such as money, time, skills, and social networks) in enabling social movements to organize and pursue their goals
Political opportunity theory suggests that social movements emerge and succeed when there are favorable political conditions (such as shifts in public opinion, divisions among elites, or changes in the political system)
Collective action frames are the ways in which social movements define and communicate their grievances, goals, and strategies to mobilize supporters and persuade others
Effective frames resonate with the experiences and values of potential supporters and provide a compelling rationale for action
Tactics used by social movements include public demonstrations, civil disobedience, lobbying, media campaigns, and building alliances with other groups
The choice of tactics depends on factors such as the goals of the movement, the resources available, and the political and cultural context
The outcomes of social movements can include changes in public policy, shifts in social norms and values, and the empowerment of marginalized groups
Successful social movements often lead to lasting changes in society, such as the expansion of civil rights, the advancement of gender equality, or the protection of the environment
Policy-making and Implementation
Public policy refers to the laws, regulations, and actions taken by government to address public issues and solve problems
The policy-making process typically involves several stages, including agenda setting (identifying problems that require government attention), policy formulation (developing and evaluating policy options), policy adoption (choosing a particular course of action), policy implementation (putting the policy into effect), and policy evaluation (assessing the impact and effectiveness of the policy)
Agenda setting is influenced by factors such as media attention, public opinion, interest group advocacy, and focusing events (such as crises or disasters)
Policy formulation involves identifying and evaluating different policy options based on criteria such as effectiveness, efficiency, equity, and political feasibility
Policy options can be generated through research, consultation with experts and stakeholders, and learning from the experiences of other jurisdictions
Policy adoption is shaped by the preferences and power of different actors (such as elected officials, bureaucrats, interest groups, and the public), as well as institutional rules and procedures
In democratic systems, policy adoption typically requires the support of a majority of legislators or the executive branch
Policy implementation involves translating policy decisions into action, often through the work of government agencies and other organizations
Effective implementation requires clear goals, adequate resources, coordination among different actors, and mechanisms for monitoring and accountability
Policy evaluation assesses the impact and effectiveness of policies in achieving their intended goals and identifies any unintended consequences or areas for improvement
Evaluation can be conducted through methods such as cost-benefit analysis, program evaluation, and public feedback
Policy transfer refers to the process by which knowledge about policies, administrative arrangements, institutions, and ideas in one political system is used in the development of policies, arrangements, institutions, and ideas in another political system
Policy transfer can occur through mechanisms such as learning, emulation, and coercion
Current Issues and Debates
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of countries through the flow of goods, services, people, money, and ideas across borders
Globalization has created new opportunities and challenges for governments, such as the need to cooperate on transnational issues (such as climate change or terrorism) and the impact of global economic forces on domestic policies
Populism is a political approach that appeals to the general public by emphasizing the interests and concerns of ordinary people, often in opposition to established elites or institutions
Populist movements have emerged in many countries in recent years, often fueled by economic insecurity, cultural anxieties, and distrust of government
Polarization refers to the increasing division of society into opposing political camps with divergent values, beliefs, and policy preferences
Political polarization can make it more difficult for governments to find common ground and implement effective policies
Identity politics refers to political positions or actions based on the interests and perspectives of particular social groups (such as racial, ethnic, religious, or gender groups)
Identity politics can highlight important issues and give voice to marginalized groups, but it can also lead to division and conflict if not balanced with a sense of shared national identity
Misinformation and disinformation refer to false or misleading information that is spread deliberately (disinformation) or unintentionally (misinformation)
The spread of misinformation and disinformation through social media and other channels can undermine public trust in institutions, fuel conspiracy theories, and distort public debate
Climate change is a major global challenge that requires coordinated action by governments, businesses, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of a changing climate
Effective climate policy involves a mix of measures such as carbon pricing, renewable energy incentives, energy efficiency standards, and support for research and innovation
Migration and refugee flows have increased in recent years due to factors such as conflict, persecution, and economic hardship
The movement of people across borders creates both opportunities and challenges for governments, such as the need to provide services and support for newcomers while managing public concerns about security, cultural change, and competition for jobs and resources