8.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
3 min read•june 25, 2024
Atomic orbital mixes atomic orbitals to create new with different shapes and energies. This process enables stronger, more stable covalent bonds when atoms bond with others, combining s, p, and sometimes .
have unique shapes and orientations that minimize electron repulsion and maximize bond strength. The type of can be predicted based on molecular geometry and the number of electron domains surrounding the central atom.
Atomic Orbital Hybridization
Process of orbital hybridization
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- Involves mixing atomic orbitals to create new hybrid orbitals with different shapes and energies
- Enables formation of stronger, more stable covalent bonds when an atom bonds with other atoms
- Combines s, p, and sometimes d orbitals of an atom
- s and p orbitals mix to form sp, sp², or sp³ hybrid orbitals (, , )
- d orbitals can also hybridize, forming sp³d or sp³d² hybrid orbitals (, )
- Hybrid orbitals possess unique shapes and orientations that minimize electron repulsion and maximize bond strength
- are linear and oriented 180° apart (ethyne)
- sp² hybrid orbitals are and oriented 120° apart (ethene)
- sp³ hybrid orbitals are tetrahedral and oriented 109.5° apart (methane)
- Number of hybrid orbitals formed equals the number of atomic orbitals participating in hybridization
- Unhybridized atomic orbitals may remain and can form pi () bonds or exist as lone pairs (ethene, water)
Prediction of hybrid orbital types
- Hybridization of the central atom is predictable based on molecular geometry and number of electron domains (bonding and lone pairs) surrounding it
- (2 electron domains): ()
- geometry (3 electron domains): ()
- Tetrahedral geometry (4 electron domains): (methane)
- geometry (5 electron domains): (phosphorus pentachloride)
- geometry (6 electron domains): (sulfur hexafluoride)
- Lone pairs on the central atom can affect molecular geometry without changing hybridization
- (2 bonding domains + 1 lone pair): sp² hybridization ()
- (3 bonding domains + 1 lone pair): sp³ hybridization ()
- (4 bonding domains + 1 lone pair): sp³d hybridization ()
- (3 bonding domains + 2 lone pairs): sp³d hybridization ()
- (5 bonding domains + 1 lone pair): sp³d² hybridization ()
- helps predict molecular geometry based on arrangements
Shapes of hybrid vs atomic orbitals
- Atomic orbitals have distinct shapes and orientations
- s orbitals are spherical (hydrogen 1s)
- p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped and oriented along x, y, and z axes (carbon 2p)
- d orbitals have more complex shapes and orientations (iron 3d)
- Hybrid orbitals differ in shape and orientation compared to atomic orbitals
- sp hybrid orbitals are linear and oriented 180° apart (ethyne)
- Formed by mixing one s and one
- sp² hybrid orbitals are trigonal planar and oriented 120° apart (ethene)
- Formed by mixing one s and two p orbitals
- sp³ hybrid orbitals are tetrahedral and oriented 109.5° apart (methane)
- Formed by mixing one s and three p orbitals
- sp hybrid orbitals are linear and oriented 180° apart (ethyne)
- Shapes and orientations of hybrid orbitals enable formation of stronger, more stable covalent bonds vs atomic orbitals alone
- Unhybridized atomic orbitals maintain original shapes and orientations and can form pi () bonds or exist as lone pairs (ethene, water)
Molecular Structure and Bonding
- provides a more accurate description of electron behavior in molecules
- Electron domains include both bonding and non-bonding electron pairs
- Bond angles between hybrid orbitals are influenced by electron-electron repulsion and molecular geometry
Key Terms to Review (50)
Ammonia: Ammonia is a colorless, pungent-smelling gas that is an important compound in various chemical reactions and processes. It is composed of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms, with the chemical formula NH3. Ammonia is a key player in several topics covered in this chemistry course, including the classification of chemical reactions, the structure of atoms, catalysis, buffer solutions, and the properties and reactions of nonmetals and nitrogen.
Bent: The term 'bent' refers to the angular shape or geometry of a molecule, particularly in the context of Lewis symbols and structures, as well as hybrid atomic orbitals. It describes the non-linear arrangement of atoms within a molecule, which is a crucial aspect of understanding molecular structure and bonding.
Beryllium chloride: Beryllium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula BeCl₂, consisting of beryllium and chlorine. It is a white crystalline solid that plays a significant role in the context of hybrid atomic orbitals due to its unique molecular geometry and bonding characteristics, which involve hybridization of atomic orbitals to form sigma bonds and molecular orbitals.
Bond angle: A bond angle is the geometric angle between two adjacent bonds in a molecule. It helps determine the overall shape of the molecule.
Bond Angle: The bond angle is the angle formed between the lines of the covalent bonds that connect two atoms to a central atom. It is a fundamental aspect of molecular structure and plays a crucial role in determining the overall shape and polarity of a molecule.
Boron Trifluoride: Boron trifluoride (BF₃) is a colorless gas at room temperature and an important chemical compound known for its role as a Lewis acid. It is comprised of one boron atom and three fluorine atoms, forming a trigonal planar molecular geometry due to the hybridization of the boron atom's orbitals, which combines its 2s and 2p orbitals into three equivalent sp² hybrid orbitals that form bonds with fluorine atoms.
Bromine pentafluoride: Bromine pentafluoride is a chemical compound with the formula BrF$_5$, consisting of one bromine atom and five fluorine atoms. This molecule showcases unique properties and bonding characteristics that arise from the hybridization of atomic orbitals, playing a significant role in understanding molecular geometry and polarity.
Chlorine Trifluoride: Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) is a highly reactive and toxic chemical compound consisting of one chlorine atom bonded to three fluorine atoms. It is an important compound in the context of hybrid atomic orbitals, as it provides an example of a molecule with a trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry.
D Orbital: The d orbital is a type of atomic orbital in an atom that can hold up to 10 electrons. It is part of the valence shell and plays a crucial role in the formation of chemical bonds and the determination of molecular geometry.
D orbitals: d orbitals are a type of atomic orbital with angular momentum quantum number $l = 2$. They have complex shapes, including cloverleaf patterns and a toroidal shape.
Electron Domain: An electron domain is the region of space around an atom where one or more electrons are found. It is a fundamental concept in the study of atomic structure and bonding, particularly in the context of hybrid atomic orbitals.
Ethene: Ethene, also known as ethylene, is a simple unsaturated hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C2H4. It is a colorless, flammable gas that is widely used in the chemical industry and is a key intermediate in the production of many organic compounds.
Ethyne: Ethyne, also known as acetylene, is a simple hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C$_2$H$_2$. It is a colorless, flammable gas with a distinctive odor and is widely used in various industrial and commercial applications.
Hybrid orbitals: Hybrid orbitals are atomic orbitals that combine to form new orbitals, which can explain the geometry of covalent bonding. These hybridized orbitals have different shapes and energies than the original atomic orbitals.
Hybrid Orbitals: Hybrid orbitals are a concept in quantum mechanics where an atomic orbital mixes with other atomic orbitals to form new orbitals with different shapes and energies. This mixing of orbitals is crucial for understanding the geometry and bonding patterns of molecules.
Hybridization: Hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons in chemical bonds. This process helps explain molecular geometries and bond properties.
Hybridization: Hybridization is the concept in chemistry where atomic orbitals combine to form new hybrid orbitals that are suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds. This idea helps explain molecular geometry and bonding properties, linking the arrangement of atoms in a molecule to their electron configurations and the types of bonds formed.
Linear Geometry: Linear geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups in a molecule where the bonds between the central atom and the surrounding atoms form a straight line. This geometric configuration is a key characteristic of certain molecular structures.
Methane: Methane is a colorless, odorless gas with the chemical formula CH₄, primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen. It is the simplest alkane and serves as a primary component of natural gas, making it an important fuel source and a significant greenhouse gas contributing to climate change.
Molecular orbital theory: Molecular orbital theory is a method used to describe the electronic structure of molecules by combining atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals that are spread over multiple atoms. This theory explains how electrons are shared between atoms, leading to bonding and anti-bonding interactions that dictate the stability and properties of molecules. Understanding this concept is crucial when examining the behavior of electrons in resonance structures, hybridization, and the formation of multiple bonds.
Octahedral: Octahedral is a molecular geometry where a central atom is surrounded by six atoms or ligands placed at the vertices of an octahedron. This arrangement results in 90° bond angles between adjacent atoms.
Octahedral: Octahedral is a geometric shape in which a central atom or ion is surrounded by six other atoms or ions arranged in a three-dimensional, octagonal configuration. This shape is commonly observed in the context of Lewis Symbols and Structures, Hybrid Atomic Orbitals, and Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals.
P orbital: A p orbital is a type of atomic orbital that has a dumbbell shape and can hold a maximum of two electrons. It is associated with the angular momentum quantum number l = 1, which means it has three different orientations in space, commonly referred to as p_x, p_y, and p_z. These orbitals play a crucial role in chemical bonding, particularly in the formation of covalent bonds.
Phosphorus Pentachloride: Phosphorus pentachloride is a covalent inorganic compound with the chemical formula PCl5. It is an important intermediate in the production of various phosphorus-containing compounds and plays a significant role in the context of hybrid atomic orbitals and the occurrence, preparation, and properties of phosphorus.
Pi bond: A pi bond is a type of covalent bond formed when two atomic orbitals overlap laterally, resulting in an electron density that is concentrated above and below the internuclear axis. This bond occurs alongside a sigma bond in double or triple bonds, and plays a critical role in the structure and reactivity of molecules by influencing their geometry and electronic properties.
S orbital: An s orbital is a type of atomic orbital that has a spherical shape and can hold a maximum of two electrons. This orbital is fundamental in understanding how electrons are arranged in atoms and plays a crucial role in bonding, particularly in the formation of covalent bonds and the concept of hybridization.
Seesaw: A seesaw, also known as a teeter-totter, is a playground equipment consisting of a long board or plank balanced on a fulcrum, allowing two people sitting on opposite ends to go up and down. In the context of hybrid atomic orbitals, the seesaw concept describes the spatial arrangement of the hybridized orbitals and their relative energies.
Sigma Bond: A sigma bond is a type of covalent chemical bond formed by the head-on overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in a high electron density concentrated along the internuclear axis between two bonded atoms. This type of bond is the strongest and most common type of covalent bond, and it plays a crucial role in the stability and structure of molecules.
Sigma bonds (σ bonds): Sigma bonds (σ bonds) are covalent bonds formed by the head-on overlap of atomic orbitals. They allow for free rotation around the bond axis.
Sp hybrid orbitals: sp hybrid orbitals are formed by the linear combination of one s orbital and one p orbital from the same atom. They result in two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals oriented 180 degrees apart, leading to a linear molecular geometry.
Sp Hybridization: sp Hybridization is a type of atomic orbital hybridization where an atom's s orbital and one of its p orbitals combine to form two equivalent hybrid orbitals. This hybridization occurs in molecules with linear geometry, such as carbon dioxide and acetylene, and is crucial in understanding the formation of multiple bonds between atoms.
Sp2 hybrid orbitals: sp2 hybrid orbitals result from the mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals in an atom, forming three equivalent orbitals. These orbitals lie in a plane at 120-degree angles to each other.
Sp² Hybridization: sp² hybridization is a type of orbital hybridization that occurs in carbon atoms and other elements, where one s orbital and two p orbitals combine to form three equivalent sp² hybrid orbitals. This hybridization is crucial in understanding the structure and bonding of many organic compounds, especially those with multiple bonds.
Sp3 hybrid orbitals: sp3 hybrid orbitals are formed when one s orbital and three p orbitals mix to create four equivalent orbitals. These orbitals have a tetrahedral geometry with bond angles of approximately 109.5 degrees.
Sp³ Hybridization: sp³ hybridization is a type of atomic orbital hybridization that occurs when an atom's s orbital and three p orbitals combine to form four equivalent hybrid orbitals. This hybridization is commonly observed in carbon compounds with four single bonds, such as methane (CH₄).
Sp3d hybrid orbitals: sp3d hybrid orbitals result from the mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals, and one d orbital. They form five equivalent sp3d hybrid orbitals that are oriented in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry.
Sp³d Hybridization: sp³d hybridization is a type of hybrid atomic orbital that occurs when a central atom has one s, three p, and one d orbital combined to form five equivalent hybrid orbitals. This hybridization is commonly observed in certain transition metal complexes and is an important concept in understanding the geometry and bonding of these complex molecules.
Sp3d2 hybrid orbitals: sp3d2 hybrid orbitals are formed by the mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals, and two d orbitals from the same atom to produce six equivalent hybrid orbitals. These orbitals are typically involved in forming octahedral geometries in molecules.
Sp³d² Hybridization: sp³d² hybridization is a type of atomic orbital hybridization that occurs when an atom has one s orbital, three p orbitals, and two d orbitals that combine to form five new equivalent hybrid orbitals. This hybridization state is commonly observed in certain transition metal complexes.
Square pyramidal: Square pyramidal refers to a molecular geometry where a central atom is surrounded by five other atoms: four atoms forming the base in a square shape and one atom located directly above the center of the base, resembling a pyramid. This arrangement is significant in understanding hybridization because it involves the mixing of atomic orbitals to form hybrid orbitals that can accommodate bonding pairs of electrons in this specific geometric configuration.
Sulfur Dioxide: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless, pungent gas that is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur. It is a major air pollutant that can have significant impacts on the environment and human health when present in high concentrations.
Sulfur Hexafluoride: Sulfur hexafluoride is a colorless, odorless, and non-flammable gas that is commonly used in various applications due to its unique chemical and physical properties. It is an important compound in the context of hybrid atomic orbitals, as it provides insights into the geometry and bonding patterns of molecules.
Sulfur Tetrafluoride: Sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) is a colorless, toxic gas with a pungent odor. It is a covalent compound consisting of one sulfur atom bonded to four fluorine atoms, and it is an important precursor in the synthesis of other fluorinated compounds.
T-shaped: T-shaped refers to a specific molecular geometry where a central atom is bonded to three other atoms in a plane while one atom is above or below that plane, resembling the letter 'T'. This geometry arises from the arrangement of hybrid atomic orbitals and is common in certain compounds with trigonal bipyramidal electron pair geometry, where lone pairs influence the shape.
Trigonal bipyramidal: Trigonal bipyramidal is a molecular geometry where a central atom is surrounded by five atoms or groups of atoms. This shape consists of three atoms in an equatorial plane and two atoms in axial positions above and below this plane.
Trigonal Bipyramidal: Trigonal bipyramidal is a molecular geometry in which five atoms or groups of atoms are arranged around a central atom in a three-dimensional shape consisting of a triangular base and two pyramids at the top and bottom. This geometry is commonly observed in certain chemical compounds and is an important concept in the study of Lewis Symbols and Structures, as well as Hybrid Atomic Orbitals.
Trigonal planar: A trigonal planar molecular geometry occurs when a molecule has three atoms bonded to a central atom with no lone pairs, resulting in a flat, triangular shape. The bond angles are typically 120 degrees.
Trigonal Planar: Trigonal planar is a molecular geometry in which a central atom is bonded to three other atoms, with all the atoms lying in the same plane and forming a triangular arrangement around the central atom.
Trigonal Pyramidal: Trigonal pyramidal is a molecular geometry in which a central atom is bonded to three atoms and one lone pair of electrons, resulting in a pyramid-like shape. This geometry is commonly observed in molecules and is an important concept in the understanding of Lewis Symbols and Structures as well as Hybrid Atomic Orbitals.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory: VSEPR theory is a model used to predict the geometry of individual molecules based on the repulsion between electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom. It states that electron pairs, whether they are bonding pairs or lone pairs, will arrange themselves in a way that minimizes repulsion, leading to specific molecular shapes. This theory is crucial for understanding how molecular geometry influences physical and chemical properties.