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18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals

3 min read•june 25, 2024

form by sharing electrons, creating diverse structures like and . These elements exhibit unique properties due to their high and ability to form various molecular geometries, influencing their reactivity and behavior.

Physical properties of vary widely, with states ranging from gases to solids at room temperature. , primarily van der Waals and , play a crucial role in determining their melting and boiling points, as well as their overall .

Structure and Bonding of Nonmetals

Structure and bonding of nonmetals

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Nonmetals form by sharing electrons to achieve stable electron configurations
- High allows nonmetals to attract shared electrons in covalent bonds
Diatomic molecules composed of two atoms of the same element bonded together ( $H_2$ $H_{2}$ , $N_2$ $N_{2}$ , $O_2$ $O_{2}$ , $F_2$ $F_{2}$ , $Cl_2$ $C l_{2}$ , $Br_2$ $B r_{2}$ , $I_2$ $I_{2}$ )
- Held together by strong covalent bonds
Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state
- allotropes: , , ( $C_{60}$ $C_{60}$ ),
  - Graphite has a layered structure with weak between layers
  - Diamond has a rigid, three-dimensional structure with strong covalent bonds in all directions
  - Fullerenes are molecules composed of carbon atoms arranged in a hollow sphere or tube
  - Graphene is a single layer of graphite with unique electronic properties
- allotropes: white phosphorus ( $P_4$ $P_{4}$ ), red phosphorus ( $P_n$ $P_{n}$ )
  - White phosphorus is highly reactive, unstable, and toxic; composed of tetrahedral $P_4$ molecules
  - Red phosphorus is more stable and less reactive; has a polymeric structure with chains of phosphorus atoms
- allotropes: ( $S_8$ $S_{8}$ ), ( $S_8$ $S_{8}$ )
  - Both composed of crown-shaped $S_8$ molecules with different crystal structures
are used to represent the arrangement of in molecules and ions
influences the shape and properties of molecules, affecting their reactivity and behavior

Physical properties of nonmetals

Nonmetals can exist in all three states of matter at room temperature
- Gases ( $H_2$ , $N_2$ , $O_2$ , $F_2$ , $Cl_2$ ), liquids ( $Br_2$ ), solids (carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, $I_2$ )
Intermolecular forces in nonmetals are generally weaker than those in metals
- () are the primary intermolecular forces in nonmetals
  - Arise from temporary dipoles created by the movement of electrons
  - Strength increases with increasing molecular size and surface area
- Some nonmetals can form bonds, which are stronger than
  - Occur when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F)
  - Examples: $NH_3$ , $H_2O$ , $HF$
Nonmetals generally have lower melting and boiling points compared to metals due to weaker intermolecular forces
- Exception: diamond has a high melting point due to its strong, three-dimensional covalent bonding

Chemical reactivity of nonmetals

Nonmetals can have various in compounds
- Oxidation state represents the degree of oxidation of an atom in a compound
- Tend to have negative oxidation states when bonded to metals and positive oxidation states when bonded to other nonmetals ( $NaCl$ : Cl has -1; $SO_3$ : S has +6)
Many nonmetals can form acids when dissolved in or reacted with water
- ( $HF$ $H F$ , $HCl$ $H Cl$ , $HBr$ $H B r$ , $HI$ $H I$ ) form in water
  - These acids are strong acids that fully dissociate in water
- are formed when nonmetals bond with and hydrogen ( $H_2SO_4$ $H_{2} S O_{4}$ , $HNO_3$ $H N O_{3}$ , $H_3PO_4$ $H_{3} P O_{4}$ )
  - Strength depends on the electronegativity of the central nonmetal atom and the number of oxygen atoms
Some nonmetals can also form when reacted with water
- $NH_3$ forms $NH_4OH$ , a weak base, when dissolved in water
Nonmetals can act as oxidizing or in chemical reactions
- readily accept electrons ( $F_2$ , $Cl_2$ , $O_2$ )
- Reducing agents readily donate electrons ( $H_2$ , $C$ )
Chemical reactivity of nonmetals is influenced by their electron configuration and ability to form covalent bonds

Bonding and Periodic Trends

form between metals and nonmetals through the transfer of electrons
occur in metals, while nonmetals primarily form covalent bonds
affect the properties of nonmetals:
- Electronegativity generally increases across a period and decreases down a group
- Atomic radius decreases across a period and increases down a group
- Ionization energy increases across a period and decreases down a group

Key Terms to Review (66)

Allotropes: Allotropes are different structural forms of the same chemical element that exist in the same physical state. These unique arrangements of atoms can result in materials with vastly different physical and chemical properties, despite being composed of the same element.

Ammonia: Ammonia is a colorless, pungent-smelling gas that is an important compound in various chemical reactions and processes. It is composed of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms, with the chemical formula NH3. Ammonia is a key player in several topics covered in this chemistry course, including the classification of chemical reactions, the structure of atoms, catalysis, buffer solutions, and the properties and reactions of nonmetals and nitrogen.

Ammonium hydroxide: Ammonium hydroxide is a solution of ammonia in water, commonly referred to as ammonia water. It consists of ammonium ions (NH4^+) and hydroxide ions (OH^-) and is widely used as a cleaning agent due to its basic nature. The presence of both ammonium and hydroxide ions gives it unique properties that relate to the behavior of nonmetals, particularly nitrogen and oxygen.

Atwater system: The Atwater system is a method used to estimate the metabolizable energy content of foods by assigning specific caloric values to macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is widely used in nutrition science to determine the energy available from food consumption.

Bases: Bases are a class of chemical compounds that are characterized by their ability to accept protons (H+ ions) and produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. They are the counterparts to acids in the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acid-base reactions and play a crucial role in the structure and general properties of nonmetals.

Bromine: Bromine is a dense, reddish-brown liquid element that is part of the halogen group on the periodic table. It is highly reactive and has a wide range of applications, particularly in the chemical industry and in the production of various compounds.

Buckminsterfullerene: Buckminsterfullerene, also known as C60 or the buckyball, is a spherical carbon molecule composed of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a unique pattern resembling a soccer ball. It is a member of the fullerene family of carbon allotropes and is considered one of the most stable and symmetrical carbon structures known to exist.

Carbon: Carbon is a fundamental element that is essential for the formation of organic compounds and the sustenance of life. It is a versatile element that can form a wide range of structures and participate in numerous chemical reactions, making it a crucial component in various fields, including chemistry, biology, and materials science.

Chemical Reactivity: Chemical reactivity refers to the ability of a substance to undergo chemical reactions and interact with other substances. It is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes the propensity of a material to participate in chemical processes and transform into new compounds.

Chlorine: Chlorine is a highly reactive, greenish-yellow gas that is one of the five halogens in the periodic table. It is an essential element in many chemical processes and compounds, with wide-ranging applications in various industries and everyday life.

Covalent bonds: A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. These bonds typically form between non-metal atoms with similar electronegativities.

Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds are chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms. These bonds are characterized by the stable arrangement of shared electron pairs, which helps to satisfy the valence electron requirements of the participating atoms.

Diamond: Diamond is a naturally occurring, crystalline form of carbon that is renowned for its exceptional hardness, brilliance, and optical properties. As a nonmetal, diamond exhibits unique structural and chemical characteristics that make it a valuable material in various applications.

Diatomic Molecules: Diatomic molecules are chemical compounds composed of two atoms of the same element, bonded together to form a stable structure. These molecules are commonly found among the nonmetal elements and play a crucial role in understanding the properties and behaviors of various substances.

Dispersion Forces: Dispersion forces, also known as London dispersion forces, are a type of intermolecular force that arises from the temporary, fluctuating dipoles that can form in all atoms and molecules. These forces play a crucial role in the structure and general properties of nonmetals.

Disproportionation reactions: Disproportionation reactions are a type of redox reaction where a single element undergoes both oxidation and reduction, forming two different products. These reactions often involve nonmetals like chlorine and sulfur.

Electronegativity: Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract and hold onto electrons within a chemical bond. It is a dimensionless quantity usually assigned values on the Pauling scale.

Electronegativity: Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond. It is a fundamental property that influences the nature and strength of chemical bonds, as well as the physical and chemical properties of substances.

Fluorine: Fluorine is the lightest and most reactive of the halogen group of elements. It is a highly corrosive, pale yellow gas that is the most electronegative element on the periodic table. Fluorine's unique properties and reactivity make it an important element in various chemical and industrial applications.

Fuller: A fuller is a tool used in blacksmithing that has a groove or indentation to shape and thin metal. It is also a term used in chemistry to describe a buckyball or fullerene, which is a molecule composed entirely of carbon, taking the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.

Fullerenes: Fullerenes are a class of carbon allotropes consisting of hollow, closed-cage molecules made up of an even number of carbon atoms. They are characterized by a unique spherical or elliptical structure that resembles a soccer ball, and they exhibit remarkable properties that make them valuable in various applications.

Geim: Geim is a method used to isolate single layers of graphite, known as graphene, through mechanical exfoliation. This process involves using adhesive tape to peel off layers from bulk graphite until obtaining monolayers.

Graphene: Graphene is a two-dimensional allotrope of carbon, consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. It is the thinnest known material and has remarkable electronic, thermal, and mechanical properties that make it a highly versatile material with numerous potential applications in various fields, including electronics, energy storage, and composite materials.

Graphite: Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon, known for its unique layered structure and excellent electrical conductivity. Its arrangement allows for the easy movement of electrons, making it useful in various applications, such as batteries and lubricants. In addition to its electrical properties, graphite also exhibits remarkable thermal stability and mechanical strength, distinguishing it from other carbon allotropes.

Homonuclear diatomic molecules: Homonuclear diatomic molecules are molecules composed of two identical atoms bonded together. Examples include $\text{H}_2$, $\text{O}_2$, and $\text{N}_2$.

Hydrogen: Hydrogen is the simplest and lightest element in the periodic table, with a single proton and electron in its neutral state. It is a highly reactive nonmetal that plays a crucial role in various chemical processes and is a fundamental component of many compounds, making it a key topic across several areas of chemistry.

Hydrogen bonding: Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs between molecules when hydrogen is covalently bonded to electronegative atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. This bond results in higher boiling and melting points for substances.

Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, and another nearby highly electronegative atom. These bonds are relatively weak compared to covalent or ionic bonds, but they play a crucial role in the structure and properties of many substances, especially water and biological macromolecules.

Hydrogen Fluoride: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) is a colorless, highly reactive, and corrosive gas that is formed when hydrogen gas reacts with fluorine gas. It is a key compound in the study of the structure and general properties of the nonmetals.

Hydrogen halides: Hydrogen halides are binary compounds formed when hydrogen reacts with halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules and are known for being strong acids when dissolved in water.

Hydrogen Halides: Hydrogen halides are a class of chemical compounds that consist of a hydrogen atom bonded to a halogen atom, such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. These compounds are important in the context of understanding the structure and general properties of nonmetals, as well as the occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen.

Hydrohalic Acids: Hydrohalic acids are a group of strong, corrosive acids formed by the combination of hydrogen (H) and a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I). These acids are important in the study of the structure and general properties of nonmetals, as well as the occurrence, preparation, and properties of halogens.

Intermolecular forces: Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion between molecules that influence the physical properties of substances. These forces are weaker than intramolecular forces, which hold atoms together within a molecule.

Intermolecular Forces: Intermolecular forces are the attractive or repulsive forces that exist between molecules, as opposed to the intramolecular forces that hold atoms together within a molecule. These forces play a crucial role in determining the physical properties and behavior of substances across various topics in chemistry, including non-ideal gas behavior, the properties of liquids, phase transitions, and the dissolution process.

Iodine: Iodine is a essential trace mineral that plays a vital role in various physiological processes, particularly in the regulation of thyroid function. It is a member of the halogen group of elements and is known for its distinctive violet-blue color and unique chemical properties.

Ionic bonds: Ionic bonds are a type of chemical bond formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Typically, these bonds form when a metal donates one or more electrons to a non-metal.

Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are a type of chemical bond that forms between a metal and a nonmetal through the transfer of electrons. This electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions is a fundamental concept in understanding the structure and properties of ionic compounds.

Lewis Structures: Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, are a visual representation of the bonding between atoms in a molecule. They depict the arrangement of atoms and the sharing or transfer of valence electrons, providing insights into the structure and properties of chemical compounds.

Metallic Bonds: Metallic bonds are the chemical bonds that hold metal atoms together in a metallic structure. These bonds are formed by the delocalization of valence electrons, allowing them to move freely throughout the metal lattice and create a shared electron cloud that binds the metal atoms together.

Molecular Geometry: Molecular geometry refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes the spatial configuration of atoms bonded together and plays a crucial role in understanding the properties and reactivity of molecules.

Monoclinic Sulfur: Monoclinic sulfur is a specific crystalline form of the element sulfur, characterized by its unique atomic structure and arrangement. This allotropic form of sulfur is particularly relevant in the context of understanding the structure and general properties of nonmetals, as well as the occurrence, preparation, and properties of sulfur itself.

Nitric Acid: Nitric acid is a highly corrosive and oxidizing inorganic compound with the chemical formula HNO3. It is a colorless to yellowish liquid that is commonly used in various industrial and chemical processes.

Nitrogen: Nitrogen is a chemical element with the atomic number 7 and the symbol N. It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that makes up approximately 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen is an essential element for life, playing crucial roles in various chemical and biological processes.

Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen fixation is the process by which molecular nitrogen ($N_2$) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia ($NH_3$) or related nitrogenous compounds in soil. This process is essential for making nitrogen available to living organisms.

Nonmetals: Nonmetals are elements that typically have high ionization energies and electronegativities. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity and can be found on the right side of the periodic table.

Nonmetals: Nonmetals are a group of elements on the periodic table that do not possess the characteristic metallic properties of metals. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity, have high ionization energies, and form covalent bonds with other elements.

Novoselov: Novoselov is a physicist who co-discovered graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice. His work on graphene has significant implications for the study of the solid state of matter and nanomaterials.

Oxidation States: Oxidation states are the measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom in a chemical compound. They represent the number of electrons an atom has lost or gained compared to a neutral atom, and are used to describe the chemical bonding in compounds.

Oxidizing Agents: Oxidizing agents, also known as oxidants, are substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances by accepting electrons in a chemical reaction. They play a crucial role in various processes, including combustion, disinfection, and water treatment, as they can initiate and sustain oxidation reactions.

Oxoacids: Oxoacids, also known as oxyacids, are a class of acids containing oxygen atoms in addition to hydrogen and one or more other elements, typically a nonmetal such as carbon, sulfur, or phosphorus. They are an important group of compounds in the context of the structure and general properties of nonmetals.

Oxygen: Oxygen is a highly reactive nonmetallic element that is essential for most forms of life. It is the third most abundant element in the universe and the most abundant element on Earth's crust. Oxygen plays a crucial role in various chemical and biological processes, including respiration, combustion, and oxidation-reduction reactions.

Periodic Trends: Periodic trends are the patterns and behaviors observed in the properties of elements as they are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic number and electron configuration. These trends are crucial in understanding the physical and chemical properties of elements, as well as their behavior in chemical reactions and interactions with other substances.

Phosphoric Acid: Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid, is a chemical compound with the formula H3PO4. It is a colorless, odorless, and non-volatile acid that plays a crucial role in various chemical and biological processes, particularly in the context of polyprotic acids, the structure and properties of nonmetals, and the occurrence, preparation, and properties of phosphorus.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a multivalent nonmetal that is essential for life, playing a crucial role in various biological and chemical processes. It is a key component of the human body and is widely distributed in nature, making it an important element across the fields of chemistry, biology, and geology.

Reducing Agents: Reducing agents are substances that have the ability to donate electrons, thereby reducing other substances and becoming oxidized themselves. They play a crucial role in the context of the structure and general properties of nonmetals, as they can influence the chemical reactivity and behavior of these elements.

Rhombic Sulfur: Rhombic sulfur is a crystalline allotrope of the element sulfur, characterized by its distinct rhombic crystal structure. It is one of the most common and stable forms of sulfur found in nature, with important implications in the structure and general properties of nonmetals as well as the occurrence, preparation, and properties of sulfur.

Smalley: Richard Smalley was an American chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996 for his discovery of fullerenes, a new form of carbon. His work significantly advanced the understanding of molecular structures and bonding.

Sodium Chloride: Sodium chloride, commonly known as table salt, is a chemical compound composed of one sodium (Na) atom and one chlorine (Cl) atom. It is an ionic compound that is essential for various physiological processes in living organisms and has numerous industrial and household applications.

Sulfur: Sulfur is a naturally occurring chemical element that is essential for life and has a wide range of applications in various industries. It is a versatile element that plays a crucial role in the periodic variations of element properties, the periodicity of the elements, the structure and general properties of the nonmetals, and the occurrence, preparation, and properties of sulfur itself.

Sulfur Trioxide: Sulfur trioxide is a colorless, pungent gas that is the primary product of the combustion of sulfur in air. It is a highly reactive and corrosive compound that plays a crucial role in the production of sulfuric acid, a widely used industrial chemical.

Sulfuric Acid: Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a highly corrosive and versatile inorganic compound that plays a crucial role in various chemical processes, including catalysis, polyprotic acid behavior, and the general properties of nonmetals.

Valence electrons: Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are involved in forming chemical bonds. They determine an element's chemical properties and reactivity.

Valence Electrons: Valence electrons are the outermost electrons in an atom that participate in chemical reactions and bonding. They are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an atom and are responsible for an element's chemical properties and behavior.

Van der Waals forces: Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that arise from the interactions between induced or permanent dipoles in molecules. They play a crucial role in determining the physical properties of liquids and solids.

Van der Waals Forces: van der Waals forces are a type of weak intermolecular attractive forces that arise between neutral atoms or molecules. These forces are responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases, the properties of liquids and solids, and the structure and general properties of nonmetals and noble gases.

Water: Water is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid that is essential for life on Earth. It is the most abundant compound on the planet and plays a vital role in various chemical and biological processes, including the topics of Early Ideas in Atomic Theory, Formula Mass and the Mole Concept, Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals, and Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen.

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Glossary

18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals

Structure and Bonding of Nonmetals

Structure and bonding of nonmetals

Top images from around the web for Structure and bonding of nonmetals

Top images from around the web for Structure and bonding of nonmetals

Physical properties of nonmetals

Chemical reactivity of nonmetals

Bonding and Periodic Trends

Key Terms to Review (66)

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18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen