10.5 The Solid State of Matter
3 min read•june 25, 2024
come in various types, each with unique properties. have high melting points and conduct electricity when molten. have low melting points due to weak forces. conduct electricity well and are malleable. are hard and brittle.
The structure of is defined by unit cells, which determine symmetry and properties. Different types exist, like and . categorize symmetry, while analysis techniques like X-ray crystallography reveal atomic structures. Crystal defects can impact material properties significantly.
Crystalline Solids
Types of crystalline solids
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- consist of positively and negatively charged ions held together by strong electrostatic forces, have high melting points due to strong ionic bonds, conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water but not as solids (, , )
- composed of molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces (, ), generally have low melting points due to weak intermolecular forces, poor electrical conductors (ice, sugar, iodine)
- consist of metal cations surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons, have high melting points due to strong metallic bonds, excellent electrical and thermal conductors, malleable and ductile due to the ability of metal ions to slide past one another without breaking bonds (copper, aluminum, gold)
- composed of atoms covalently bonded in a three-dimensional network, have high melting points due to strong covalent bonds throughout the structure, poor electrical conductors (with the exception of graphite), hard and brittle due to the inability of atoms to slide past one another without breaking bonds (diamond, silicon, quartz)
- Some elements can exist in multiple forms with different crystal structures, known as (e.g., diamond and graphite for carbon)
Structure of crystalline solids
- Unit cell the smallest repeating unit that makes up a crystal structure, determines the overall symmetry and properties of the crystalline solid
- the percentage of space occupied by atoms or ions in a unit cell, higher packing efficiency generally results in higher density and stability
- Types of unit cells include:
- Simple cubic (SC): atoms at each corner of the cube
- (BCC): atoms at each corner and one in the center of the cube
- Face-centered cubic (FCC): atoms at each corner and the center of each face of the cube
- (HCP): atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern with alternating layers
- the number of nearest neighbors an atom or ion has in a crystal structure (SC: 6, BCC: 8, FCC: 12, HCP: 12)
- Crystal systems categorize the symmetry of unit cells, including cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal, and trigonal
Crystal Analysis and Properties
- X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of crystals
- is the energy required to separate the ions in an ionic solid, influencing properties such as melting point and solubility
- Some substances can exist in multiple crystal structures under different conditions, a phenomenon known as
Crystal Defects
Crystal defects and impacts
- include (missing atoms or ions in the crystal lattice), (extra atoms or ions occupying spaces between regular lattice positions), and (impurity atoms or ions replacing regular atoms or ions in the lattice), which can alter electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and optical properties
- () include (extra half-plane of atoms inserted into the crystal structure) and (spiral arrangement of atoms around a line), which can make materials more malleable and ductile by allowing planes of atoms to slide past one another more easily
- include (interfaces between different crystalline regions with different orientations) and (local changes in the stacking sequence of atomic planes), which can affect mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and corrosion resistance
- include (small voids within the material), cracks (larger voids that can propagate under stress), and (impurities or phases trapped within the material), which can reduce mechanical strength, alter electrical and thermal properties, and provide sites for chemical reactions or corrosion
Amorphous Solids
- Amorphous solids lack long-range order in their atomic structure, unlike crystalline solids
- Examples include glass, plastics, and some ceramics
- Properties of amorphous solids often differ from their crystalline counterparts, such as having less defined melting points and different mechanical behaviors
Key Terms to Review (49)
Allotropes: Allotropes are different structural forms of the same chemical element that exist in the same physical state. These unique arrangements of atoms can result in materials with vastly different physical and chemical properties, despite being composed of the same element.
Body-Centered Cubic: Body-centered cubic (BCC) is a type of crystal lattice structure in which atoms are arranged in a three-dimensional grid, with one atom positioned at the center of each cube and an atom at each of the eight corners. This arrangement gives the BCC structure unique properties and characteristics that are important in the study of the solid state of matter and crystalline solids.
Body-centered cubic (BCC) solid: A body-centered cubic (BCC) solid is a type of crystalline structure where each unit cell has one atom at each of the eight corners and one atom in the center of the cell. This arrangement results in a more open structure compared to face-centered cubic (FCC) solids.
Body-centered cubic unit cell: A body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cell is a type of crystal structure in which each cube-shaped unit cell has an atom at each of its eight corners and one atom at the center. The BCC structure is less densely packed than the face-centered cubic (FCC) structure but more so than the simple cubic (SC) structure.
Bulk Defects: Bulk defects are imperfections or irregularities that occur within the internal structure of a solid material, disrupting the regular arrangement of atoms or molecules. These defects can significantly influence the physical and chemical properties of the material.
CaF2: Calcium fluoride (CaF2) is an inorganic compound consisting of calcium and fluorine. This compound forms a crystalline solid that exhibits unique properties, such as high melting point and low solubility in water, making it significant in various applications like optics and metallurgy. Its connection to the solid state of matter is highlighted by its crystalline structure, while its relationship with halogens stems from its formation through the reaction of calcium with fluorine.
Coordination number: The coordination number is the number of atoms, ions, or molecules that a central atom or ion holds as its nearest neighbors in a complex or lattice structure. It indicates the connectivity and spatial arrangement around the central entity.
Coordination Number: The coordination number is the number of atoms, ions, or molecules that are directly bonded to a central atom or ion in a coordination complex or crystal structure. This concept is fundamental in understanding the solid state of matter, lattice structures in crystalline solids, and the coordination chemistry of transition metals.
Covalent network solids: Covalent network solids are materials where atoms are connected by covalent bonds in a continuous, extensive 3D network. These solids typically have high melting points and are very hard.
Covalent Network Solids: Covalent network solids are a class of crystalline solids in which the atoms are connected by strong covalent bonds, forming an extensive, three-dimensional network that extends throughout the entire material. These solids exhibit high melting and boiling points due to the strong intramolecular bonds.
Crystal Systems: Crystal systems are the seven distinct arrangements of atoms in a crystalline solid that describe the fundamental geometric properties of a crystal. These arrangements are characterized by the symmetry and the lengths and angles of the unit cell, which is the smallest repeating unit that defines the structure of the crystal.
Crystalline solids: Crystalline solids are materials whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a highly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. They exhibit distinct melting points and characteristic geometric shapes.
Crystalline Solids: Crystalline solids are a state of matter characterized by the highly organized, repeating three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a fixed geometric pattern. This ordered structure is a defining feature of crystalline solids and distinguishes them from other solid states like amorphous solids.
Dislocations: Dislocations are linear defects in the crystalline structure of a solid material, where the atoms are misaligned from their regular positions. They are important in understanding the mechanical properties and behavior of solids, particularly their strength and deformation characteristics.
Edge Dislocations: Edge dislocations are a type of crystalline defect in the solid state of matter, where an extra half-plane of atoms is inserted into the crystal lattice, causing a disruption in the regular atomic arrangement. This type of defect is important in understanding the mechanical properties and deformation behavior of solid materials.
Face-Centered Cubic: Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) is a type of crystal lattice structure in which atoms are arranged in a three-dimensional grid, with an atom located at each corner of the cube and an additional atom at the center of each face of the cube. This arrangement is one of the fundamental lattice structures observed in crystalline solids.
Face-centered cubic (FCC) solid: A face-centered cubic (FCC) solid is a type of crystalline structure where atoms are located at each corner and the center of all cube faces of a unit cell. This arrangement leads to high packing efficiency.
Geim: Geim is a method used to isolate single layers of graphite, known as graphene, through mechanical exfoliation. This process involves using adhesive tape to peel off layers from bulk graphite until obtaining monolayers.
Grain Boundaries: Grain boundaries are the interfaces or boundaries between adjacent crystalline grains or crystals in a polycrystalline solid material. They represent the regions where the crystallographic orientation of the grains changes abruptly, leading to disruptions in the atomic structure and properties of the material.
Hexagonal Close-Packed: Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) is a type of crystal lattice structure in which atoms or ions are arranged in a repeating three-dimensional pattern. This arrangement is characterized by a close-packed structure with a hexagonal unit cell, providing high packing efficiency and stability for certain solid materials.
Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, and another nearby highly electronegative atom. These bonds are relatively weak compared to covalent or ionic bonds, but they play a crucial role in the structure and properties of many substances, especially water and biological macromolecules.
Inclusions: Inclusions are small, foreign particles or crystals that are trapped within a mineral or gemstone during its formation. They can provide valuable information about the conditions under which the host material was created and can be used to identify the source or origin of the material.
Interstitial sites: Interstitial sites are positions within a crystal lattice where atoms or ions can reside that are not part of the regular lattice points. These sites are typically smaller and often occupied by smaller atoms or ions.
Interstitials: Interstitials are defects that occur in the crystalline structure of a solid material, where an atom occupies a position between the regular lattice sites of the crystal. These defects can significantly impact the physical and chemical properties of the solid.
Ionic solids: Ionic solids are a type of crystalline solid composed of ions held together by strong electrostatic forces (ionic bonds). They typically form when metals react with non-metals.
Ionic Solids: Ionic solids are crystalline structures composed of positively and negatively charged ions held together by strong electrostatic forces. These solids exhibit high melting and boiling points, and are generally hard, brittle, and poor conductors of electricity.
Lattice Energy: Lattice energy is the energy released when a solid ionic compound is formed from its constituent gaseous ions. It represents the strength of the ionic bonds within the crystal structure and is a crucial factor in determining the stability and properties of ionic compounds.
Lattice energy (ΔHlattice): Lattice energy ($\Delta H_{lattice}$) is the energy released when one mole of an ionic crystalline compound is formed from its constituent ions in the gas phase. It is a measure of the strength of the bonds in that ionic compound.
Line Defects: Line defects are one-dimensional imperfections in the crystalline structure of a solid material. They represent a disruption or discontinuity in the regular arrangement of atoms within the crystal lattice, which can significantly impact the material's physical and chemical properties.
Metallic solids: Metallic solids are types of solids composed of metal atoms held together by a sea of delocalized electrons. They typically exhibit high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, and ductility.
Metallic Solids: Metallic solids are a class of solid materials characterized by their metallic properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, luster, and malleability. They are formed when metal atoms are closely packed together in a regular, crystalline structure, resulting in the distinct properties associated with metals.
MgO: MgO, or magnesium oxide, is a chemical compound consisting of one magnesium atom and one oxygen atom. It is a white, crystalline solid that is widely used in various industrial and chemical applications. MgO is particularly relevant in the context of the topics: 7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds, 10.5 The Solid State of Matter, 18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals, and 18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen.
Molecular solids: Molecular solids are solids composed of molecules held together by intermolecular forces such as van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds. They tend to have lower melting points compared to other types of solids due to the relatively weaker forces between their molecules.
Molecular Solids: Molecular solids are a type of solid material in which the constituent particles are discrete molecules held together by intermolecular forces, rather than by metallic, ionic, or covalent bonds. These solids have unique properties and structures that distinguish them from other solid forms.
NaCl: NaCl, commonly known as sodium chloride, is a chemical compound that consists of one sodium atom (Na) and one chlorine atom (Cl) bonded together. It is an ionic compound that is essential for various biological and industrial processes, and it is the primary component of table salt.
Novoselov: Novoselov is a physicist who co-discovered graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice. His work on graphene has significant implications for the study of the solid state of matter and nanomaterials.
Packing Efficiency: Packing efficiency is a measure of how tightly particles or atoms are arranged within a crystalline solid structure. It quantifies the degree to which the available space in a unit cell or lattice is occupied by the constituent particles.
Planar Defects: Planar defects are two-dimensional imperfections that occur within the ordered crystal structure of a solid material. These defects disrupt the regular arrangement of atoms and can significantly influence the physical and chemical properties of the material.
Point Defects: Point defects are localized imperfections or irregularities within the crystalline structure of a solid material. These defects occur at specific atomic sites and can significantly influence the physical and chemical properties of the material.
Polymorphism: Polymorphism refers to the ability of a substance to exist in multiple distinct crystalline forms, each with a unique arrangement and bonding of atoms. This phenomenon can occur in both organic and inorganic materials, and it has important implications in the solid state of matter and the properties of various compounds.
Pores: Pores are small openings or channels that exist in the surface of a solid material, allowing the passage of fluids, gases, or small particles through the material. They are an important characteristic of the solid state of matter, particularly in the context of adsorption, diffusion, and the behavior of materials.
Screw Dislocations: Screw dislocations are a type of crystal defect in the solid state of matter, where the atoms in the crystal structure are arranged in a spiral pattern around a central axis. This disruption in the regular arrangement of atoms creates a line defect that can significantly impact the mechanical properties of the material.
Screw dislocations are an important concept in the study of the solid state of matter, as they influence the behavior and characteristics of crystalline materials at the atomic level.
Simple Cubic: Simple cubic is a type of crystal structure where atoms or molecules are arranged in a three-dimensional cubic lattice, with one atom or molecule located at each of the eight corners of the cube. This arrangement is one of the most fundamental and common crystal structures found in solid materials.
Stacking Faults: Stacking faults are planar defects that occur in the stacking sequence of the atomic planes in a crystalline solid. They disrupt the regular, periodic arrangement of atoms in the crystal structure, leading to local variations in the material's properties and behavior.
Substitutional Defects: Substitutional defects are a type of point defect that occurs in the crystal structure of a solid material when an atom of one element replaces an atom of a different element in the regular lattice positions. This disruption in the ordered arrangement of atoms can significantly impact the physical and chemical properties of the material.
Unit Cell: The unit cell is the fundamental building block of a crystalline solid, representing the smallest repeating unit that encompasses the full symmetry and structure of the crystal lattice. It is the basic unit used to describe the arrangement and organization of atoms or molecules within a crystalline material.
Vacancies: Vacancies refer to the empty spaces or missing atoms within the crystalline structure of a solid material. These defects in the orderly arrangement of atoms can significantly impact the physical and chemical properties of the solid.
Van der Waals forces: Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that arise from the interactions between induced or permanent dipoles in molecules. They play a crucial role in determining the physical properties of liquids and solids.
Van der Waals Forces: van der Waals forces are a type of weak intermolecular attractive forces that arise between neutral atoms or molecules. These forces are responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases, the properties of liquids and solids, and the structure and general properties of nonmetals and noble gases.