1.1 Chemistry in Context
3 min read•june 24, 2024
has evolved from ancient to a rigorous scientific discipline. It now encompasses , , and the . These foundations enable us to understand and manipulate matter at the molecular level.
Modern chemistry has wide-ranging applications in materials science, pharmaceuticals, and environmental sustainability. The guides chemical research, while fundamental principles like and help us predict and control .
The Evolution and Applications of Chemistry
Evolution of chemistry discipline
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- Ancient alchemy attempted to transform matter through , discovering elements like gold and silver
- Alchemists sought the believed to enable of base metals into gold
- Scientific methods developed, emphasizing (Robert Boyle) and (Antoine Lavoisier)
- Lavoisier established , systematically naming compounds based on their composition
- Atomic theory proposed by John Dalton, suggesting elements are composed of indivisible particles (atoms)
- Dmitri Mendeleev organized elements into the periodic table based on their properties and atomic weights
- represented chemical bonds, showing the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms
- Linus Pauling applied to chemistry, advancing understanding of molecular structure (proteins, DNA)
Applications of chemistry
- Materials science develops new substances like (plastics), (nylon), and with unique properties ()
- synthesizes active ingredients for drugs and develops targeted drug delivery systems ()
- promotes sustainability through principles (reducing waste) and renewable energy ()
- enhances flavor, nutrition, and shelf life using (BHA), additives (), and (vitamin D in milk)
Scientific Method and Chemical Concepts
Scientific method in chemistry
- Observations and questions identify phenomena (color changes in reactions) and formulate research questions
- propose testable explanations (increasing temperature will speed up the reaction rate)
- Experiments are designed to test hypotheses under controlled conditions, collecting quantitative () and qualitative (color) data
- Data analysis identifies trends (direct relationship between temperature and reaction rate) and draws conclusions supported by evidence
- Peer-reviewed publication communicates findings (journal articles) for scrutiny and validation by the scientific community
Hypotheses vs theories vs laws
- Hypotheses are tentative, testable predictions based on limited evidence (increasing pressure will increase gas )
- are well-supported, comprehensive explanations that account for a wide range of phenomena ()
- concisely describe observed relationships between variables without explaining why ( for ideal gases)
Representations of chemical concepts
- representations depict observable properties like physical state (solid, liquid, gas), color, and measurable quantities (mass, volume)
- representations show particle behavior, such as the arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice or ()
- Symbolic representations use chemical notation, including formulas (H2O), structural diagrams (), balanced equations (), and mathematical expressions ()
Fundamental Chemical Principles
Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
- Chemical reactions involve the transformation of reactants into products, often accompanied by energy changes
- Balanced chemical equations represent the conservation of atoms in reactions
- Stoichiometry allows quantitative analysis of reactants and products in chemical reactions
- Limiting reagents determine the maximum amount of product that can be formed in a reaction
Chemical bonding and molecular structure
- Chemical bonding involves the formation of attractive forces between atoms, resulting in stable molecules or compounds
- Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms
- Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons between atoms, forming oppositely charged ions
- Molecular geometry influences the properties and reactivity of compounds
Thermodynamics in chemical systems
- Thermodynamics studies the transfer of energy in chemical reactions and physical processes
- Enthalpy changes (ΔH) measure the heat absorbed or released during a reaction at constant pressure
- Entropy (S) quantifies the degree of disorder in a system
- Gibbs free energy (G) determines the spontaneity of chemical reactions and processes
Key Terms to Review (55)
Alchemy: Alchemy is an ancient practice and philosophical tradition that focused on the transformation and purification of materials, with the ultimate goal of achieving the transmutation of base metals into gold. It was a precursor to the modern scientific discipline of chemistry, combining elements of science, philosophy, and mysticism.
Atomic Theory: Atomic theory is the scientific model that describes the fundamental structure and behavior of matter. It is the foundation for understanding the composition and properties of all substances in the universe, from the smallest atoms to the largest celestial bodies.
Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures composed entirely of carbon atoms, typically with a diameter on the nanometer scale. They possess unique physical, chemical, and electrical properties that make them highly versatile in various applications within the field of chemistry and beyond.
Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonding is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule or compound. It is the fundamental process that determines the stability and properties of chemical substances.
Chemical Nomenclature: Chemical nomenclature is the systematic naming of chemical compounds based on established rules and conventions. It provides a standardized way to identify and communicate the structure and composition of various substances.
Chemical Reactions: A chemical reaction is a process that involves the rearrangement of atoms or molecules to form new substances with different properties. It is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes the transformation of reactants into products through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
Chemical thermodynamics: Chemical thermodynamics studies the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or physical changes. It applies principles of thermodynamics to predict the direction and extent of chemical processes.
Chemistry: Chemistry is the scientific study of matter, its properties, and how it interacts with energy. It explores the composition, structure, and changes that substances undergo during chemical reactions.
Conservation of Mass: Conservation of mass is a fundamental principle in chemistry which states that the total mass of a closed system remains constant, regardless of any physical or chemical changes that may occur within the system. This means that the mass of the reactants in a chemical reaction must be equal to the mass of the products.
Dalton’s atomic theory: Dalton's atomic theory is a fundamental theory in chemistry stating that all matter is composed of indivisible atoms, each element has identical atoms, and chemical reactions involve rearrangement of these atoms. Proposed by John Dalton in the early 19th century, this theory laid the groundwork for modern atomic science.
Empirical Evidence: Empirical evidence refers to information that is based on direct observation, experimentation, or experience, rather than on theory or logic alone. It is the foundation of the scientific method and is used to support or refute hypotheses and theories.
Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers are substances that facilitate the formation and stabilization of emulsions, which are mixtures of two or more immiscible liquids, such as oil and water. They act as intermediaries, allowing these liquids to be combined and remain evenly dispersed, preventing separation.
Environmental Chemistry: Environmental chemistry is the study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places like the atmosphere, oceans, and soils. It involves investigating the sources, reactions, transport, and effects of chemical species in the environment, with the goal of understanding and solving environmental problems.
Food Chemistry: Food chemistry is the study of the chemical composition, properties, and reactions of food and its components. It encompasses the analysis of nutrients, additives, and other substances present in food, as well as the chemical processes involved in food preparation, preservation, and spoilage.
Fortification: Fortification is the process of adding essential nutrients to food products to enhance their nutritional value and improve public health. This practice is commonly used to address nutrient deficiencies in a population and ensure adequate intake of vital micronutrients.
Green Chemistry: Green chemistry is an approach to chemical design, development, and implementation that aims to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. It focuses on creating more sustainable and environmentally friendly chemical processes and products.
Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonding is a type of dipole-dipole intermolecular force that occurs when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative element, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine, experiences an attractive force with another nearby highly electronegative element. This attractive force is significantly stronger than a typical dipole-dipole interaction and has a significant impact on the physical and chemical properties of various compounds.
Hydrometallurgy: Hydrometallurgy is a method used in extracting metals from their ores through the use of aqueous chemistry. It involves processes like leaching, solution concentration and purification, and metal recovery.
Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon or observation, which serves as a starting point for further investigation and experimentation. It is a tentative, testable statement that suggests a possible relationship or connection between different variables.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the relationship between variables. It serves as a foundational step in the scientific method, guiding experimental design and data analysis.
Intermolecular forces: Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion between molecules that influence the physical properties of substances. These forces are weaker than intramolecular forces, which hold atoms together within a molecule.
Intermolecular Forces: Intermolecular forces are the attractive or repulsive forces that exist between molecules, as opposed to the intramolecular forces that hold atoms together within a molecule. These forces play a crucial role in determining the physical properties and behavior of substances across various topics in chemistry, including non-ideal gas behavior, the properties of liquids, phase transitions, and the dissolution process.
Kinetic molecular theory: The kinetic molecular theory explains the behavior of gases in terms of motion and energy of their molecules. It states that gas particles are in constant, random motion and that the temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
Kinetic Molecular Theory: The kinetic molecular theory is a model that explains the behavior of gases by describing the motion and interactions of gas particles. It provides a framework for understanding the fundamental properties of gases, such as pressure, volume, and temperature, in the context of the microscopic behavior of gas molecules.
Laws: Laws in chemistry are fundamental principles that describe the consistent and predictable behavior of matter. They are derived from extensive experimental observations and validated through repeated testing.
Lewis Dot Structures: Lewis dot structures are a visual representation of the valence electron arrangement around an atom. They depict the number of valence electrons an atom has and how these electrons are distributed around the atom's nucleus in the form of dots.
Lewis Structures: Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, are a visual representation of the bonding between atoms in a molecule. They depict the arrangement of atoms and the sharing or transfer of valence electrons, providing insights into the structure and properties of chemical compounds.
Liposomes: Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of a lipid bilayer that can be used as drug delivery systems. They are able to encapsulate and transport various therapeutic agents, including drugs, proteins, and genetic materials, to target specific cells or tissues in the body.
Macroscopic: Macroscopic refers to the observable, large-scale properties and phenomena that can be seen with the naked eye or low-magnification instruments, as opposed to the microscopic or atomic-level details. It describes the study of systems and materials at a scale that is visible and tangible to human perception.
Macroscopic domain: The macroscopic domain deals with phenomena and properties that can be observed and measured directly, such as volume, mass, and temperature. It contrasts with the microscopic domain, which involves particles and interactions at the atomic or molecular level.
Melting point: The melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid under standard atmospheric pressure. It is a specific physical property characteristic of each substance.
Melting Point: The melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance transitions into a liquid state. It is a fundamental physical property that reflects the strength of intermolecular forces within a material and the energy required to overcome these forces and disrupt the ordered solid structure.
Metallurgy: Metallurgy is the science and technology of extracting metals from their ores, refining them, and creating useful alloys. It encompasses the study of the physical and chemical properties of metals, as well as the processes involved in their production, processing, and application across various industries.
Microscopic: Microscopic refers to things that are of a size so small that they can only be observed and studied using a microscope. This term is closely tied to the field of chemistry, as many of the fundamental building blocks of matter, such as atoms and molecules, are microscopic in nature and require specialized instruments to investigate.
Microscopic domain: The microscopic domain in chemistry involves the study of substances and processes at the atomic and molecular level. It includes observations and theories about atoms, molecules, ions, and subatomic particles.
Nanomaterials: Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension in the nanoscale range, typically between 1 and 100 nanometers. At this scale, materials can exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ from their bulk counterparts, making them useful in a wide range of applications.
Nuclear transmutation: Nuclear transmutation is the process of changing one chemical element or isotope into another through nuclear reactions. This can occur naturally, such as in radioactive decay, or artificially in particle accelerators and nuclear reactors.
Periodic Table: The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements organized by their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. It serves as a fundamental tool in chemistry, providing a systematic way to classify and understand the behavior of elements based on their position within the table.
PH: pH, or potential of hydrogen, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is a scale that ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, values less than 7 being acidic, and values greater than 7 being basic or alkaline. The pH of a solution is directly related to the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) present, and it is a critical factor in many chemical and biological processes.
Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Pharmaceutical chemistry is the scientific discipline concerned with the design, synthesis, and development of new pharmaceutical compounds. It involves the application of chemistry principles and techniques to the discovery, optimization, and characterization of drug molecules for the treatment and prevention of diseases.
Philosopher's Stone: The philosopher's stone is a legendary alchemical substance that was believed to have the power to transform base metals into gold or silver. It was also thought to be an elixir of life that could grant the user eternal youth and immortality.
Polymers: Polymers are large, complex molecules composed of many smaller, repeating units called monomers. They are found in a wide variety of natural and synthetic materials, playing a crucial role in the context of chemistry and its applications.
Preservatives: Preservatives are chemical additives used in various food, pharmaceutical, and personal care products to extend their shelf life and prevent spoilage. They help maintain the quality, safety, and stability of these products by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms, oxidation, and other deteriorative processes.
Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic levels. It explains phenomena that classical physics cannot, such as the dual wave-particle nature of electrons.
Quantum Mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic scale. It is the foundation for understanding the nature of particles, their interactions, and the properties of matter at the most fundamental level.
Scientific method: The scientific method is a systematic approach to research that involves making observations, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions. It ensures that findings are reliable and can be replicated.
Scientific Method: The scientific method is a systematic process used to investigate and understand the natural world. It involves making observations, formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions to test and validate theories.
Solar Cells: Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are devices that convert sunlight directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. They are a key component in the development of renewable and sustainable energy sources, playing a crucial role in the context of 1.1 Chemistry in Context and 18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids.
Solubility: Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure. It determines how substances interact in solutions.
Solubility: Solubility is a measure of the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent, forming a homogeneous solution. It is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given volume of a solvent under specific conditions of temperature and pressure.
Stoichiometry: Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions using balanced chemical equations. It involves the use of molar ratios derived from these equations to predict quantities of substances consumed and produced.
Synthetic Fibers: Synthetic fibers are man-made fibers that are produced artificially from chemical compounds, rather than being derived from natural sources like plants or animals. These fibers are created through a manufacturing process that involves the polymerization of organic compounds to form long, continuous strands.
Theories: Theories are well-substantiated explanations of some aspect of the natural world that are based on a body of evidence and can be used to predict future occurrences or observations. They integrate and generalize principles to provide a framework for understanding phenomena.
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat, work, temperature, and energy. It describes the fundamental physical laws governing the transformation of energy and the flow of heat, which are essential to understanding the behavior of chemical systems and processes.
Transmutation: Transmutation is the process of transforming one element into another through nuclear reactions. It involves the alteration of the nucleus of an atom, changing its proton and neutron configuration to create a new element with different chemical properties.