🤼‍♂️International Conflict Unit 12 – Peacekeeping: Strategies and Challenges

What's Peacekeeping All About?

• Involves deployment of military, police and civilian personnel to create conditions for sustainable peace
• Aims to help countries torn by conflict transition to stable and lasting peace
• Operates based on 3 core principles: consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate
• Multidimensional approach addresses complex challenges through political, security, humanitarian and socio-economic efforts
• Peacekeepers monitor peace processes, provide security, protect civilians, assist in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants
• Facilitates political processes, protects human rights, assists in restoring the rule of law, and supports legitimate governments
• Differs from peacemaking (diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement) and peace enforcement (use of a range of coercive measures, including military force)

Key Players in Peacekeeping

• United Nations Security Council authorizes and oversees peacekeeping operations, determining size and mandate of each mission
• UN Department of Peace Operations (DPO) plans, prepares, manages and directs UN peacekeeping operations
  • Works closely with Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) and Department of Operational Support (DOS)
• UN member states contribute military and police personnel on a voluntary basis
  • Top contributors include Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, Rwanda (as of 2021)
• Host country government invites or consents to peacekeeping presence and cooperates with mission
• Regional organizations like African Union (AU), European Union (EU), and NATO support or partner with UN in some missions
• NGOs and civil society groups collaborate with peacekeepers on humanitarian assistance, human rights monitoring, and peacebuilding efforts

Evolution of Peacekeeping Missions

• First UN peacekeeping mission deployed in 1948 to monitor Armistice Agreement between Israel and Arab states
• Cold War era missions mainly focused on monitoring ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground
  • Often involved lightly armed military observers and had limited mandates
• Post-Cold War saw a rapid increase in number and scope of peacekeeping missions
  • Addressed intra-state conflicts and civil wars (Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique)
  • Included tasks like electoral assistance, human rights promotion, and mine clearance
• Failures in Rwanda, Somalia and Bosnia in 1990s led to critical re-evaluation of peacekeeping practices
• Brahimi Report (2000) recommended reforms to strengthen capacity to deploy rapidly, improve planning and support, and enhance cooperation with regional organizations
• 21st century missions became more robust and multidimensional
  • Larger military components to protect civilians and support peace processes (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Darfur)
  • Greater emphasis on peacebuilding tasks like security sector reform, rule of law, and economic recovery

Peacekeeping Strategies That Work

• Political primacy: prioritizing political solutions and supporting peace processes through mediation, good offices, and technical assistance
• Robust peacekeeping: deploying militarily capable forces to deter violence, protect civilians, and actively support implementation of peace agreements
  • Requires clear and achievable mandates, adequate resources, and political support
• Community engagement: building trust with local populations through regular dialogue, quick impact projects, and public information campaigns
  • Helps manage expectations, gather intelligence, and promote local ownership
• Integrated approach: ensuring coherence and coordination among all UN actors (peacekeeping, political, humanitarian, development) in support of overarching political objectives
• Partnership peacekeeping: collaborating with regional organizations, international financial institutions, and civil society to leverage comparative advantages and share burdens
• Women, peace and security: promoting gender equality and women's participation in peace processes, protecting women's rights, and addressing sexual violence in conflict
  • Deploying more women peacekeepers and gender advisers
• Environmental sustainability: reducing missions' environmental footprint, managing waste and hazardous materials, and supporting natural resource management in host countries

Challenges Peacekeepers Face

• Lack of political will and consensus among key stakeholders to resolve conflicts
  • Peacekeeping is not a substitute for political solutions
• Inadequate resources and capabilities to match ambitious mandates
  • Troop and police contributing countries may lack necessary training, equipment, and enablers
• Complex and asymmetric threats from armed groups, terrorists, and organized crime
  • Blurred lines between combatants and civilians complicate protection efforts
• Host state consent and cooperation not always guaranteed, especially when government is party to conflict
• Allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers undermine trust and legitimacy
  • Need for better prevention, enforcement, and accountability measures
• Peacekeeper fatalities and injuries due to malicious acts, accidents, and illness
  • Improving safety and security of personnel is a top priority
• Difficulty measuring impact and effectiveness of peacekeeping in absence of clear benchmarks and exit strategies
  • Balancing need for longer-term peacebuilding with imperative to avoid open-ended missions

Case Studies: Wins and Fails

• Successful missions:
  • Namibia (UNTAG, 1989-1990): supervised elections and transition to independence
  • Cambodia (UNTAC, 1992-1993): organized free and fair elections after years of conflict
  • El Salvador (ONUSAL, 1991-1995): monitored ceasefire and supported implementation of peace accords
  • Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL, 1999-2005): helped end civil war and restore democratic government
• Partial successes:
  • Liberia (UNMIL, 2003-2018): supported peace process and post-conflict reconstruction but challenges remain
  • Haiti (MINUSTAH, 2004-2017): helped stabilize country after unrest but criticized for not addressing root causes
• Failures:
  • Rwanda (UNAMIR, 1993-1996): failed to prevent or stop genocide due to inadequate mandate and resources
  • Bosnia (UNPROFOR, 1992-1995): unable to protect civilians or prevent ethnic cleansing in designated "safe areas"
  • Darfur (UNAMID, 2007-2020): struggled to protect civilians and facilitate political solution in face of government obstruction and ongoing violence

Ethical Dilemmas in Peacekeeping

• Balancing impartiality with moral imperative to protect civilians
  • When and how to use force in defense of mandate without becoming party to conflict
• Respecting sovereignty and consent of host state while fulfilling mandate to promote human rights and rule of law
  • Tensions can arise when government is perpetrator of abuses or opposes reforms
• Managing relations with non-state armed groups
  • Engaging with them to facilitate peace process vs. avoiding legitimization of their actions
• Deciding whether to intervene in situations of imminent or ongoing mass atrocities
  • Responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine vs. principle of non-use of force
• Allocating limited resources and setting priorities
  • Which crises merit peacekeeping response and which can be managed through other means
• Ensuring accountability for misconduct by peacekeepers
  • Balancing due process with need for swift justice and victim assistance
• Maintaining operational independence from powerful member states and regional actors
  • Resisting pressure to align with particular political agendas or interests

Future of Peacekeeping Operations

• Emphasis on prevention and sustaining peace
  • Investing in early warning, mediation, and peacebuilding capacities to address root causes of conflict
• More strategic and context-specific missions
  • Tailoring mandates and footprints to needs and realities on the ground
  • Developing clear and achievable benchmarks for success and transition
• Enhanced partnerships with regional organizations and other stakeholders
  • African Union, European Union, World Bank, private sector, etc.
  • Co-deployments, joint planning and analysis, division of labor
• Increased use of technology for intelligence, surveillance, and force protection
  • Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), remote sensors, big data analysis
  • Requires addressing legal, ethical, and operational challenges
• Focus on peacebuilding and sustainable development
  • Aligning peacekeeping with Agenda 2030 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
  • Supporting inclusive politics, responsive institutions, and resilient societies
• Improving safety and security of peacekeepers
  • Better training, equipment, medical support, and rapid response capabilities
  • Strengthening accountability for crimes against peacekeepers
• Ensuring sustainable financing and burden-sharing
  • Exploring options beyond assessed contributions (e.g., trust funds, public-private partnerships)
  • Encouraging more equitable distribution of personnel and capabilities among member states