6.3 Territorial Expansion and Manifest Destiny
4 min read•august 16, 2024
The United States rapidly expanded its territory in the early 19th century. The , , and added vast lands to the nation. These acquisitions fueled the belief in and .
Territorial expansion had profound impacts on Native Americans and sectional tensions over slavery. The displacement of indigenous peoples and debates over slavery in new territories intensified conflicts between North and South, setting the stage for future crises.
Antebellum Territorial Expansion
Louisiana Purchase and Adams-Onis Treaty
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- The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 nearly doubled the size of the United States, adding territory from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains
- The Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florida to the United States from Spain and established the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain
Texas Annexation, Oregon Boundary, and Mexican-American War
- The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the resolution of the dispute with Britain in 1846 further expanded U.S. territory
- The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) resulted in the acquisition of vast territories in the Southwest and California through the
- The in 1853 acquired additional land from Mexico in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua)
Manifest Destiny's Influence
Belief in Divine Right and Duty
- Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined by God to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent
- This ideology was used to justify , as many Americans believed it was their divine right and duty to extend the "boundaries of freedom" to the Pacific Ocean
American Exceptionalism and Racial Superiority
- Manifest Destiny was influenced by the idea of American exceptionalism, which held that the United States was inherently different from other nations due to its republican ideals, economic opportunity, and expansive territories
- The concept was often associated with the belief in the racial and cultural superiority of white Americans over Native Americans and Mexicans ()
- Manifest Destiny shaped American foreign policy, leading to increased territorial acquisitions, diplomatic initiatives, and military interventions in the Western Hemisphere ()
Territorial Acquisition's Impact
Native American Displacement and Conflicts
- Westward expansion and territorial acquisition led to the displacement and forced relocation of numerous Native American tribes
- The of 1830 authorized the president to negotiate treaties to remove Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River and relocate them to federal territory west of the river
- This policy resulted in the , the forced migration of Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations from their ancestral homelands to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
- As American settlers moved westward, conflicts with Native American tribes intensified, leading to a series of wars and skirmishes, such as the (1832) and the (1835-1842)
Sectional Tensions over Slavery
- The expansion of slavery into newly acquired territories exacerbated sectional tensions between the North and the South
- The (1820) attempted to maintain the balance between free and slave states, but the issue of slavery in the territories remained contentious
- The (1846), which sought to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico, further heightened sectional tensions
- The attempted to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, but it ultimately failed to address the underlying causes of sectional conflict (popular sovereignty)
Mexican-American War Consequences
Territorial Gains and Debates over Slavery
- The Mexican-American War resulted in the U.S. acquisition of a vast territory, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
- The war and subsequent territorial gains reignited debates over the extension of slavery into new territories, contributing to the growing sectional divide between the North and the South
Economic and Social Transformations
- The discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to the , which brought a massive influx of settlers and transformed the region's economy and demographics
- The war and territorial acquisitions accelerated westward migration and the displacement of Native American populations, as American settlers sought to establish farms, ranches, and communities in the newly acquired lands ()
Political and Cultural Impact
- The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the war and guaranteed U.S. citizenship and property rights to Mexicans living in the ceded territories, but many faced discrimination and loss of land in the following decades
- The war had political consequences, with the Whig Party opposing the war and the expansionist policies of President , while Democrats generally supported the war effort and territorial expansion
Key Terms to Review (22)
Adams-Onís Treaty: The Adams-Onís Treaty, signed in 1819, was an agreement between the United States and Spain that ceded Florida to the U.S. and established a boundary between U.S. territories and New Spain. This treaty was significant as it reflected the growing ambitions of the United States for territorial expansion and the concept of Manifest Destiny, which would later dominate American thought and policy.
American Exceptionalism: American exceptionalism is the belief that the United States is inherently different from other nations, often emphasizing its unique political, social, and economic systems as a model for others. This concept has been closely tied to ideas of manifest destiny and territorial expansion, as well as the belief in the nation's role as a global leader after conflicts like the Spanish-American War.
Anglo-Saxonism: Anglo-Saxonism is a cultural and political ideology that promotes the belief in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon culture and people, often linked to the justification for territorial expansion and colonialism. This ideology emerged during the 19th century and became a significant part of American nationalism, influencing policies related to Manifest Destiny and the idea that the United States was destined to expand across North America.
Black Hawk War: The Black Hawk War was a brief conflict that took place in 1832 between the United States and a coalition of Native American tribes led by the Sauk leader Black Hawk. This war highlighted the tensions resulting from territorial expansion and the desire for land, reflecting the broader context of American policies toward Native Americans during the era of westward expansion.
California Gold Rush: The California Gold Rush was a mass migration of an estimated 300,000 people to California from 1848 to 1855, following the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in 1848. This event played a crucial role in the westward expansion of the United States, exemplifying the idea of Manifest Destiny as individuals and families sought wealth and new opportunities in the newly acquired territory.
Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a series of legislative measures aimed at resolving tensions between free and slave states following the Mexican-American War. It sought to balance the interests of both sides by admitting California as a free state, establishing popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah, and implementing a stricter Fugitive Slave Law. This compromise was an attempt to quell sectional disputes and maintain the fragile peace between the North and South.
Gadsden Purchase: The Gadsden Purchase was an 1853 agreement in which the United States acquired a small portion of land from Mexico, specifically parts of present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico. This acquisition aimed to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad and was significant in the context of territorial expansion and Manifest Destiny, highlighting the U.S. desire to spread its territory across North America.
Homestead Act: The Homestead Act was a significant piece of legislation passed in 1862 that encouraged western migration by providing settlers with 160 acres of public land in exchange for a small fee and the requirement to improve the land over five years. This act played a crucial role in promoting territorial expansion and was a key component of the concept of Manifest Destiny, as it facilitated the settlement of the American West by making land accessible to ordinary citizens.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act was a significant part of the broader narrative of territorial expansion, influencing both the ideology of Manifest Destiny and the political landscape during Andrew Jackson's presidency.
James K. Polk: James K. Polk was the 11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849, known for his strong belief in Manifest Destiny and his role in territorial expansion. His presidency is marked by significant achievements, including the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Treaty, and the Mexican-American War, all of which expanded U.S. territory and fulfilled the nation's perceived destiny to spread across the continent.
Louisiana Purchase: The Louisiana Purchase was a significant land acquisition made by the United States from France in 1803, which doubled the size of the nation and secured access to the Mississippi River. This deal, negotiated under President Thomas Jefferson, was pivotal for westward expansion and set the stage for future territorial growth as well as the concept of Manifest Destiny.
Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century belief that the expansion of the United States across the American continents was both justified and inevitable. This ideology fueled a sense of American exceptionalism and played a crucial role in territorial expansion, influencing policies and conflicts that shaped the nation’s history.
Mexican-American War: The Mexican-American War was a conflict fought between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, primarily over territorial disputes and the expansion of the United States. This war was rooted in the idea of Manifest Destiny, which held that Americans were destined to expand across the continent, leading to significant territorial gains for the U.S., including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.
Missouri Compromise: The Missouri Compromise was an agreement made in 1820 to resolve the conflict between slave and free states as the United States expanded westward. It allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state while Maine was admitted as a free state, maintaining the balance of power in Congress. This compromise also established a line along the southern border of Missouri, prohibiting slavery in the territories north of that line, which was a significant step in the ongoing debate over slavery during territorial expansion.
Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy statement made in 1823 that warned European nations against further colonization and interference in the Americas. It established the Western Hemisphere as a zone of U.S. influence, asserting that any attempts by European powers to control or influence countries in the Americas would be viewed as acts of aggression. This doctrine was significant as it reflected the growing sense of nationalism and the desire for territorial expansion that characterized the era, shaping American foreign policy for decades to come.
Oregon Boundary: The Oregon Boundary refers to the disputed territory in the Pacific Northwest that was claimed by both the United States and Great Britain in the early 19th century. This territorial conflict was a significant aspect of the broader concept of Manifest Destiny, as it reflected the American desire to expand westward and secure land for settlement and economic opportunities.
Second Seminole War: The Second Seminole War was a conflict between the United States and the Seminole tribe in Florida from 1835 to 1842, primarily fueled by U.S. efforts to forcibly remove the Seminoles from their lands as part of a broader policy of Indian removal. This war represented a significant moment in the context of territorial expansion, highlighting the tensions arising from the push for land by American settlers and the resistance of Native Americans, which became emblematic of the struggles linked to Manifest Destiny.
Texas Annexation: Texas Annexation refers to the process by which the Republic of Texas was incorporated into the United States as the 28th state on December 29, 1845. This event was a significant milestone in the broader narrative of territorial expansion and Manifest Destiny, reflecting the growing desire among Americans to expand the nation across the continent.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American tribes, primarily the Cherokee, from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event is a critical aspect of territorial expansion and highlights the impact of Manifest Destiny, as it exemplifies the consequences of U.S. policies under the presidency that prioritized westward expansion over the rights of indigenous peoples.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the agreement signed on February 2, 1848, that ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in Mexico ceding a significant portion of its territory to the United States. This treaty not only marked a pivotal moment in the expansion of U.S. territory but also exemplified the belief in Manifest Destiny, as it fulfilled American ambitions to expand across the continent, leading to further debates about slavery and statehood in the newly acquired lands.
Westward expansion: Westward expansion refers to the 19th-century movement of settlers and immigrants into the western territories of the United States, fueled by the belief in Manifest Destiny, which was the idea that Americans were destined to expand across the continent. This movement significantly altered the social, economic, and political landscape of the nation as settlers sought new opportunities, land, and resources, leading to the establishment of new states and conflicts with Native American populations and other countries.
Wilmot Proviso: The Wilmot Proviso was a legislative proposal introduced in 1846 aimed at banning slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War. This proposal highlighted the intense debate over the expansion of slavery into new territories, reflecting the growing sectional tensions between the North and South during a period marked by territorial expansion and the ideology of Manifest Destiny.