2.6 Trail of Tears and forced removal
6 min read•august 20, 2024
The marks a dark chapter in U.S. history, where Native American tribes were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands. This policy, rooted in European colonization and westward expansion, was championed by President and formalized through the of 1830.
Despite legal challenges by the , the U.S. government proceeded with forced relocation. The brutal journey westward, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in thousands of deaths from disease, starvation, and exposure. This event had lasting impacts on Native American communities, including loss of land and cultural identity.
Origins of Indian removal policy
- European colonization and westward expansion led to increasing conflicts over land between Native American tribes and white settlers
- U.S. government sought to acquire Native American lands through , often using coercion, manipulation, or force
- Belief in manifest destiny, the idea that U.S. expansion across the continent was inevitable and justified, fueled support for Indian removal policies
Andrew Jackson's role in removal
- Andrew Jackson, who served as a general in the U.S. Army and later as president, was a strong advocate for Indian removal
- Jackson negotiated treaties with Native American tribes, often using threats or force to pressure them into ceding their lands
- As president, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law and oversaw the forced relocation of thousands of Native Americans
Election of 1828
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- Andrew Jackson ran for president in 1828 on a platform that included support for Indian removal
- Jackson's campaign portrayed Native Americans as savages who needed to be removed from their lands to make way for white settlers
- Jackson's victory in the election was seen as a mandate for his Indian removal policies
Indian Removal Act of 1830
- The Indian Removal Act, signed into law by President Jackson in 1830, authorized the president to negotiate treaties with Native American tribes for their removal to lands west of the Mississippi River
- The act did not specifically authorize the use of force, but Jackson and his administration used military force to pressure tribes into signing removal treaties
- The act resulted in the forced relocation of tens of thousands of Native Americans, including the , , , , and tribes
Cherokee resistance to removal
- The Cherokee Nation, one of the largest and most powerful Native American tribes in the southeastern U.S., strongly opposed removal
- Cherokee leaders, such as , argued that the Cherokee had a right to their ancestral lands and had adopted many aspects of European-American culture, including a written constitution and system of government
- The Cherokee used legal and political means to resist removal, including petitioning Congress and filing lawsuits in federal court
Cherokee Nation vs Georgia
- In 1831, the Cherokee Nation filed a lawsuit against the state of Georgia, arguing that Georgia's laws that restricted Cherokee and encouraged Cherokee removal were unconstitutional
- The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that it did not have jurisdiction over the case because the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" and not a foreign state
- The ruling was a setback for the Cherokee, but they continued to resist removal through legal and political means
Worcester vs Georgia
- In 1832, Samuel Worcester, a white missionary living among the Cherokee, filed a lawsuit challenging Georgia's laws that prohibited white people from living on Cherokee lands without a state license
- The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Worcester's favor, finding that the Cherokee Nation was a distinct political community with sovereign authority over its lands and people
- The ruling was a victory for the Cherokee, but President Jackson refused to enforce it, reportedly saying "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it"
Process of forced removal
- Despite the Cherokee's legal and political efforts to resist removal, the U.S. government eventually used military force to remove them from their lands
- In 1838, the U.S. Army began rounding up Cherokee people and forcing them into internment camps, where they were held until they could be forcibly marched west
- The forced march, known as the Trail of Tears, covered over 1,000 miles and took several months to complete
Roundup of Cherokee people
- U.S. Army troops, led by General Winfield Scott, began rounding up Cherokee people in May 1838
- Troops surrounded Cherokee villages and farms, forcing people from their homes at gunpoint and marching them to internment camps
- Many Cherokee were given little time to gather their belongings or prepare for the journey, and were forced to leave behind their homes, farms, and possessions
Conditions on the trail
- The Trail of Tears was a brutal and deadly journey for the Cherokee and other tribes who were forced to march west
- Cherokee were marched over 1,000 miles through Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
- The journey took place during a harsh winter, and many Cherokee died from exposure, disease, and starvation
- Inadequate food, clothing, and shelter led to widespread illness and death
- Many elderly, young children, and pregnant women were among those who died on the trail
Deaths and disease
- Estimates of the number of Cherokee who died on the Trail of Tears vary, but most historians believe that at least 4,000 Cherokee died during the journey and in the internment camps
- Common causes of death included pneumonia, dysentery, and other infectious diseases
- Lack of proper sanitation and medical care in the internment camps contributed to the spread of disease
- Many Cherokee also died from exposure to the elements, as they were forced to march in the dead of winter without adequate clothing or shelter
Aftermath and impact
- The Trail of Tears and forced removal had a devastating impact on the Cherokee and other Native American tribes
- In addition to the thousands of lives lost, the Cherokee and other tribes were forced to leave behind their ancestral lands and way of life
- The removal also had long-lasting cultural, social, and economic impacts on Native American communities
Loss of ancestral lands
- The forced removal of the Cherokee and other tribes resulted in the loss of millions of acres of ancestral lands
- Many of these lands were quickly taken over by white settlers and speculators, who established farms, plantations, and towns
- The loss of land also meant the loss of sacred sites, burial grounds, and other culturally significant places for Native American communities
Assimilation policies
- After removal, the U.S. government pursued policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into white American culture
- These policies included forcing Native American children to attend boarding schools, where they were forbidden from speaking their native languages or practicing their traditional cultures
- Assimilation policies were designed to erase Native American cultures and identities, and had a devastating impact on Native American communities and families
Legacy and memorialization
- The Trail of Tears and forced removal of Native Americans remain a shameful chapter in U.S. history
- In recent years, there have been efforts to memorialize the victims of the Trail of Tears and to educate the public about this dark period in American history
- The Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, established in 1987, commemorates the routes taken by the Cherokee and other tribes during forced removal
- Museums, monuments, and other memorials have been established to honor the memory of those who died on the Trail of Tears and to raise awareness about the ongoing struggles of Native American communities
- Despite these efforts, the legacy of the Trail of Tears and forced removal continues to impact Native American communities to this day, and many argue that the U.S. government has not done enough to acknowledge or atone for these injustices
Key Terms to Review (23)
Andrew Jackson: Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States, serving from 1829 to 1837. Known for his populist approach and strong leadership, he played a significant role in shaping American politics during the early 19th century, particularly through his controversial policies regarding Native American removal and his efforts to represent the common man against the elite.
Cherokee: The Cherokee are a Native American tribe originally from the southeastern United States, known for their rich cultural heritage, complex social structure, and historical significance. They played a vital role in the history of the Appalachian Mountains and faced forced removal during the Trail of Tears, which greatly impacted their population and culture. The Cherokee also contributed significantly to Appalachian dance traditions, reflecting their enduring influence in the region.
Cherokee Homeland: The Cherokee Homeland refers to the ancestral lands of the Cherokee Nation, primarily located in the southeastern United States, encompassing areas in present-day North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. This territory is significant as it represents not just a physical space but also a cultural and spiritual center for the Cherokee people, deeply intertwined with their identity and way of life. The forced removal from this homeland during the 1830s, most notably through the Trail of Tears, symbolizes the broader impact of U.S. expansion and policies on Native American tribes.
Cherokee Nation: The Cherokee Nation is a Native American tribe originally from the southeastern United States, with a rich history and cultural heritage. Known for their sophisticated political system and written language, the Cherokee people faced immense challenges during the 19th century, particularly during the period of forced removal from their ancestral lands, most notably during the Trail of Tears. This forced migration significantly impacted their population and community structure, leading to long-term consequences for their identity and sovereignty.
Chickasaw: The Chickasaw are a Native American tribe originally from the Southeastern United States, primarily in present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Kentucky. Known for their warrior culture and strong resistance to European encroachment, they were eventually forced to relocate to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma) during the 1830s, an event tied closely to the Trail of Tears and forced removal of various tribes.
Choctaw: The Choctaw are a Native American tribe originally from the Southeastern United States, particularly in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama. They are known for their rich cultural heritage and history, as well as their significant experiences during the forced removal of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands, specifically during the Trail of Tears in the 1830s.
Creek: The Creek, also known as the Muscogee, are a Native American people originally from the southeastern United States. They played a significant role during the Trail of Tears, as many were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the 1830s, experiencing immense suffering during this tragic event.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and behaviors of another culture, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This concept plays a crucial role in understanding historical events and movements where marginalized groups have been pressured to conform to dominant societal norms, impacting their cultural heritage and community dynamics.
Cultural Resilience: Cultural resilience refers to the ability of a community or group to adapt and thrive despite challenges, such as displacement or conflict, while maintaining their cultural identity and practices. This concept highlights the strength of cultural traditions and values in the face of adversity, showing how communities can preserve their heritage even when undergoing significant changes or pressures.
Diaspora: Diaspora refers to the dispersion or scattering of a group of people from their original homeland to different locations around the world. This term often relates to the cultural, social, and emotional experiences of those displaced, as they maintain connections to their heritage while adapting to new environments. The concept is deeply tied to significant historical events that forced groups to relocate, shaping their identities and communities in the process.
Federal Policy: Federal policy refers to the principles and regulations set forth by the national government that guide its interactions with states, communities, and citizens. These policies can impact various areas including land use, economic development, and social issues, particularly in the context of marginalized groups. The implementation of federal policies often influences historical events, such as forced removals and the treatment of indigenous populations.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the river. This act was a significant step in the U.S. government's efforts to seize Native lands, ultimately leading to tragic events such as the Trail of Tears, where many tribes, including the Cherokee, were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands, causing immense suffering and loss of life.
Intergenerational Trauma: Intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological and emotional impact of traumatic experiences that is passed down from one generation to another. This can manifest in various forms, including mental health issues, substance abuse, and disrupted family dynamics, affecting individuals who have not directly experienced the initial trauma. It often creates a cycle of trauma within families and communities, particularly relevant in discussions surrounding historical injustices like forced removals.
John Ross: John Ross was a prominent leader of the Cherokee Nation during the 19th century, known for his strong opposition to the forced removal of Cherokee people from their ancestral lands. He played a pivotal role in advocating for the rights of his people against U.S. government policies, particularly during the era leading up to the Trail of Tears, where thousands of Cherokees were forcibly relocated. His leadership and resistance were crucial in shaping the political landscape of the Cherokee Nation during this turbulent period.
Land dispossession: Land dispossession refers to the process through which individuals or communities are forcibly removed from their lands, often resulting in loss of access to resources and cultural identity. This concept is crucial in understanding historical injustices that occurred during periods of colonization, forced removals, and the establishment of agricultural practices, as it highlights how land ownership and control have been central to power dynamics and social struggles.
Oklahoma Territory: Oklahoma Territory was a designated area established in the 19th century for the resettlement of Native American tribes forcibly removed from their ancestral lands, particularly during the Trail of Tears. This territory became a significant symbol of the government's policies toward Native Americans, representing both the displacement and the resilience of Indigenous peoples as they adapted to new environments.
Oral histories: Oral histories are personal accounts and narratives passed down through generations, typically conveyed through storytelling, interviews, or spoken traditions. They serve as vital records that capture individual experiences and community memories, often reflecting cultural identity, historical events, and social changes. These narratives can provide unique insights into events like forced removals, revealing the emotions and perspectives of those who lived through them.
Primary source documents: Primary source documents are original materials created during the time under study, providing firsthand evidence or direct testimony. These documents can take many forms, such as letters, official records, photographs, and diaries, which offer unique insights into historical events and perspectives. In understanding historical occurrences like forced removals, primary sources are invaluable for analyzing the experiences and viewpoints of those directly affected.
Seminole: The Seminole are a Native American tribe originally from Florida, known for their resistance against forced removal from their ancestral lands in the 19th century. This resistance culminated in the Seminole Wars, particularly during the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), which was a significant response to U.S. government policies that aimed to relocate them, contributing to broader narratives around the Trail of Tears and forced removals of indigenous peoples.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions free from external interference. It embodies the idea of political independence and territorial integrity, allowing a nation or group to control its own affairs, establish laws, and interact with other nations. In the context of Indigenous peoples, sovereignty highlights their right to self-determination and autonomy in relation to colonial powers and government policies.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation and other Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event resulted in the suffering and death of thousands, reflecting a dark period in American history marked by broken treaties and the government's disregard for Indigenous rights.
Treaties: Treaties are formal agreements between sovereign entities, often used to resolve conflicts, establish peace, or outline the terms of land ownership and governance. In the context of forced removal, treaties often involved coercive negotiations that led to the loss of indigenous lands and rights, reflecting the imbalances of power during the period of westward expansion in the United States.
Worcester v. Georgia: Worcester v. Georgia was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1832 that held the state of Georgia could not impose its laws on Native American lands, specifically regarding the removal of Cherokee Indians. This decision arose from a conflict between the state of Georgia and missionaries, Samuel Worcester and others, who were arrested for living on Cherokee land without a state permit. The ruling reinforced the sovereignty of Native American nations and challenged state authority, particularly in the context of forced removal policies and the Trail of Tears.