⚾️Honors Physics Unit 18 – Static Electricity

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Static electricity involves stationary electric charges built up on objects through friction or induction
• Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter measured in coulombs (C)
• Like charges repel each other while opposite charges attract
• Coulomb ($1 \text{ C} = 6.24 \times 10^{18}$ elementary charges) is the SI unit of electric charge
  • Elementary charge ($e = 1.602 \times 10^{-19} \text{ C}$) is the magnitude of charge carried by a proton or electron
• Electric field is a region around a charged object where it exerts a force on other charges
• Electric potential energy is the potential for a charged particle to do work due to its position in an electric field
• Electrostatic induction occurs when a charged object polarizes the charges within a neutral object without contact

Fundamental Principles of Static Electricity

• Conservation of charge states that the net charge in an isolated system remains constant
• Charge quantization means that electric charge exists in discrete units of elementary charges
• Principle of superposition states that the total electric force on a charge is the vector sum of all individual forces acting on it
• Coulomb's law describes the force between two point charges as proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
• Electric field lines represent the direction and strength of an electric field
  • Field lines point away from positive charges and towards negative charges
  • Denser field lines indicate a stronger electric field
• Electrostatic equilibrium is achieved when the net electric force on each charge in a system is zero

Types of Electric Charges and Their Behavior

• There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative
• Protons carry a positive charge while electrons carry a negative charge
  • Neutrons are electrically neutral
• Objects with an equal number of protons and electrons are electrically neutral
• Charged objects can attract neutral objects through a process called electrostatic induction
• Polarization occurs when the charges within a neutral object redistribute due to the influence of a nearby charged object
  • Positive charges are attracted towards the negative side of the charged object while negative charges are repelled
• Charge separation can occur in materials like wool and rubber when rubbed together, causing a buildup of opposite charges on each material

Methods of Charging Objects

• Charging by friction involves rubbing two materials together, causing electrons to transfer from one material to the other (rubbing a balloon on hair)
• Charging by conduction occurs when a charged object directly touches a neutral object, allowing charge to transfer until both objects have the same charge
• Charging by induction happens when a charged object polarizes a neutral object without direct contact, causing charge separation
  • Grounding the neutral object while it is polarized can permanently transfer charge
• Triboelectric series ranks materials based on their tendency to gain or lose electrons when rubbed together
  • Materials higher on the series tend to lose electrons and become positively charged
• Van de Graaff generator uses a moving belt to accumulate charge on a metal dome, producing high voltages

Electric Fields and Forces

• Electric field strength ($E$) is defined as the force per unit charge: $E = \frac{F}{q}$
• Direction of the electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a small positive test charge placed at that point
• Electric field of a point charge is radially outward for a positive charge and radially inward for a negative charge
• Electric field lines never cross and their density represents the strength of the field
• Electric potential energy ($U$) of a charge ($q$) in an electric field is given by: $U = qV$, where $V$ is the electric potential
• Work done by the electric force is equal to the change in electric potential energy: $W = -\Delta U$

Coulomb's Law and Its Applications

• Coulomb's law states that the force ($F$) between two point charges ($q_1$ and $q_2$) is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance ($r$) between them: $F = k \frac{|q_1q_2|}{r^2}$
  • $k$ is Coulomb's constant: $k = 8.99 \times 10^9 \text{ N} \cdot \text{m}^2 / \text{C}^2$
• Force is attractive for opposite charges and repulsive for like charges
• Superposition principle allows Coulomb's law to be applied to systems with multiple charges
  • Net force on a charge is the vector sum of all individual forces acting on it
• Electric field due to a point charge can be found using Coulomb's law: $E = k \frac{|q|}{r^2}$
• Gauss's law relates the electric flux through a closed surface to the total charge enclosed by the surface

Conductors vs. Insulators

• Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to flow freely (metals, graphite, salt water)
  • Have low electrical resistance and can be used to transfer charge
• Insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges to flow easily (rubber, plastic, glass)
  • Have high electrical resistance and can be used to prevent charge transfer
• In conductors, charges redistribute themselves to cancel out any electric field within the material
  • Excess charges reside on the surface of a conductor
• Insulators can be polarized by an external electric field, causing charge separation within the material
• Semiconductors have electrical properties between those of conductors and insulators and can be used to control the flow of charge (silicon, germanium)

Real-World Applications and Phenomena

• Lightning occurs when the electric field between a cloud and the ground or another cloud exceeds the dielectric strength of air, causing a rapid discharge of electrons
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) can damage electronic components and pose risks in flammable environments (gas stations)
  • Grounding and using ESD-safe materials can prevent buildup of static charges
• Xerography (photocopying) uses static electricity to attract toner particles to charged areas of a photoconductor drum
• Electrostatic precipitators use charged plates to remove particles from industrial exhaust gases
• Van de Graaff generators are used in particle accelerators and to demonstrate static electricity principles
• Electrostatic spray painting uses charged droplets to efficiently coat objects with paint
• Electrostatic separation can be used to sort materials based on their charge properties (recycling)