2.1 Ibsen's life and major works
8 min read•july 30, 2024
Henrik Ibsen, born in 1828 in Norway, revolutionized theater with his realistic plays that tackled social issues. From early works like to later masterpieces like , Ibsen's career spanned decades and left an indelible mark on modern drama.
Ibsen's plays often featured complex characters grappling with societal expectations and personal desires. His innovative use of realistic dialogue and symbolism, along with his exploration of taboo subjects, challenged audiences and paved the way for future playwrights to push boundaries on stage.
Ibsen's Life and Career
Family Background and Early Influences
Top images from around the web for Family Background and Early Influences
Skien - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Ibsen Museum, | Henrik Ibsen, famous playwright of The Doll'… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Henrik Ibsen - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Skien - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Ibsen Museum, | Henrik Ibsen, famous playwright of The Doll'… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Family Background and Early Influences
Skien - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Ibsen Museum, | Henrik Ibsen, famous playwright of The Doll'… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Henrik Ibsen - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Skien - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Ibsen Museum, | Henrik Ibsen, famous playwright of The Doll'… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Born in 1828 in Skien, Norway to a wealthy family
- Family went bankrupt when Ibsen was a child, an event that shaped his portrayal of financial struggles and middle-class hypocrisy in his plays (A Doll's House, Pillars of Society)
- Worked as an apothecary's apprentice and studied to enter university as a young man, but did not pass the entrance exams
- Began writing plays and took a job as a theater director and playwright in Bergen from 1851-1857, gaining practical experience in the theater world
Marriage and Family Life
- Married Suzannah Thoresen in 1858 and they had one son together named Sigurd
- Suzannah was a strong supporter of Ibsen's work throughout his career, providing emotional and practical support
- Their marriage lasted until Ibsen's death in 1906, a span of nearly 50 years
- Ibsen's relationship with his son Sigurd was sometimes strained, as reflected in father-son conflicts in plays like and
Literary Breakthrough and International Recognition
- Received a state grant to travel abroad in 1864 and spent the next 27 years living in Italy and Germany, gaining perspective to critique Norwegian society from a distance
- Critical breakthrough came with the verse drama Brand in 1865, establishing him as a respected playwright in Scandinavia and providing financial independence to write full-time
- Although often associated with , Ibsen's early plays like (1867) drew on romantic traditions and Norwegian folklore before he turned to more realist social dramas in the late 1870s
- Became an international figure with the success of A Doll's House (1879) and (1881), which sparked and debate across Europe for their radical social criticism
Later Years and Legacy
- Suffered a series of strokes in 1900 that ended his literary career after a remarkably productive period in the 1890s that produced some of his most symbolic and psychological works (, Little Eyolf)
- Died in 1906 in Kristiania (now Oslo) at the age of 78, widely recognized as one of the most important playwrights of the 19th century
- Ibsen's innovations in realistic dialogue, characterization, and plot structure influenced the development of modern drama and helped pave the way for later playwrights like Chekhov, Shaw, and O'Neill
- His plays remain frequently performed and adapted around the world and his social critiques continue to resonate with contemporary audiences
Ibsen's Major Plays
Early Plays and Historical Dramas (1850-1873)
- Catiline (1850) - Ibsen's first play, a verse drama about the Roman politician Catiline, not performed in his lifetime
- The Burial Mound also known as The Warrior's Barrow (1850) - Ibsen's second play, also written in verse, set in the Viking Age
- Lady Inger of Ostrat (1855) - Historical drama in prose inspired by Shakespeare and Schiller, about a 16th-century Norwegian noblewoman
- The Feast at Solhaug (1856) - Romantic historical drama in verse set in medieval Norway
- Olaf Liljekrans (1857) - Romantic folk comedy in verse incorporating elements of Norwegian folklore
- The Vikings at Helgeland (1858) - Historical tragedy in prose inspired by the Icelandic sagas, about a love triangle and family feud
- Love's Comedy (1862) - A satirical comedy that portrays the tension between art and love, foreshadowing Ibsen's later critiques of romantic idealism
- Brand (1865) - Verse drama about a clergyman's uncompromising idealism that established Ibsen's reputation as a major Scandinavian writer
- Peer Gynt (1867) - Sprawling verse drama that combines folkloric fantasy with satirical realism to depict an individual's quest for self-realization
- Emperor and Galilean (1873) - Historical epic in two parts about the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, Ibsen's longest play and the culmination of his early period
Realist Social Dramas (1877-1882)
- (1877) - Contemporary realist drama criticizing the hypocrisy and moral corruption of bourgeois society, considered the first of Ibsen's realist cycle
- A Doll's House (1879) - Groundbreaking realist social drama about a woman who leaves her family, controversial in its time for its criticism of traditional and marriage norms
- Ghosts (1881) - Realist family drama that deals with taboo subjects like venereal disease, incest, and euthanasia, showcasing Ibsen's willingness to tackle provocative social issues
- (1882) - Realist drama about an individual in conflict with his community, exploring themes of truth, integrity, and the tyranny of the majority
Late Plays and Symbolist Dramas (1884-1899)
- The Wild Duck (1884) - Tragicomedy incorporating symbolist elements that examines the dangers of idealism and the comforting illusions people construct
- (1886) - Psychological and political drama with supernatural elements about an ex-clergyman and his housekeeper, reflecting Ibsen's interest in the inner lives of his characters
- (1888) - Symbolist drama about a woman torn between duty and freedom, using the sea as a central metaphor for the unknown and the subconscious
- (1890) - Realist psychological drama about a general's daughter trapped in a dissatisfying marriage, one of Ibsen's most complex and enigmatic female characters
- The Master Builder (1892) - Symbolist tragicomedy about an aging architect grappling with ambition, guilt, and mortality, inspired by Ibsen's relationship with a younger woman
- Little Eyolf (1894) - Symbolist family drama that reflects on questions of guilt, responsibility, and the difficulty of human connection
- (1896) - Drama with symbolist elements about a disgraced banker seeking redemption, showcasing Ibsen's sustained interest in the interplay of past and present
- (1899) - Ibsen's last play, a deeply personal and symbolic drama about an artist and his muse that revisits many of his recurring themes and motifs
Themes and Style in Ibsen's Works
Idealism and Its Discontents
- Ibsen's early plays like Brand and Peer Gynt examine the nature of idealism, whether in the form of uncompromising moral conviction or egocentric
- These verse dramas often focus on larger-than-life protagonists who pursue their ideals to the point of self-destruction or absurdity (Brand's demand for "All or Nothing," Peer Gynt's shapeshifting adventures)
- In his later, more realist plays, Ibsen continues to explore the dangers of idealism but on a more intimate scale, showing how characters' adherence to abstract principles can lead to personal and familial ruin (Gregers Werle in The Wild Duck, Rosmer and Rebecca in Rosmersholm)
- Ibsen's recurring interest in the tension between idealism and reality reflects his own struggle to reconcile his artistic ambitions with the practical demands of the theater and the expectations of his audience
Social Criticism and the Individual vs. Society
- Ibsen's realist plays of the 1870s and 1880s are known for their trenchant criticism of bourgeois society and its institutions, especially marriage and the family
- Plays like A Doll's House and Ghosts expose the hypocrisy and oppression lurking beneath the surface of respectable middle-class life, using the family as a microcosm of broader social ills
- Ibsen's realist works often pit strong-willed individuals against the stifling conventions and expectations of their communities, dramatizing the conflict between personal freedom and social conformity (Nora in A Doll's House, Mrs. Alving in Ghosts, Dr. Stockmann in An Enemy of the People)
- This theme of the individual vs. society continues in Ibsen's later, more symbolic plays, though the conflicts become more internalized and psychological (Ellida in The Lady from the Sea, Solness in The Master Builder)
Women and Gender Roles
- Many of Ibsen's most famous and controversial plays feature complex female protagonists who chafe against the limitations placed on them by traditional gender roles and societal norms
- Characters like Nora in A Doll's House and Hedda in Hedda Gabler struggle to find fulfillment and self-realization in a world that expects them to be obedient wives and mothers
- Even when his plays center on male protagonists, Ibsen often includes strong female characters who challenge or subvert gender stereotypes (Lona Hessel in Pillars of Society, Mrs. Alving in Ghosts, Hilde Wangel in The Master Builder)
- Ibsen's nuanced and sympathetic portrayals of women's inner lives and social predicaments made him a pioneering figure in the representation of gender on stage, even as he sometimes faced criticism for his unconventional female characters
Symbolism and Psychological Depth
- In his later plays of the 1880s and 1890s, Ibsen increasingly incorporated symbolist elements and shifted his focus to the inner lives and psychological conflicts of his characters
- These post-realist works frequently use symbols and metaphors to explore existential questions and universal human struggles (the wild duck as a symbol of illusion and self-deception, the sea as a symbol of freedom and the unknown)
- Ibsen's symbolic plays are characterized by a greater degree of ambiguity and open-endedness than his earlier realist dramas, inviting multiple interpretations and reflecting his characters' psychological complexity
- The use of symbolism and poetic language in plays like The Master Builder and When We Dead Awaken also allowed Ibsen to express more personal and autobiographical themes, such as the nature of creativity and the relationship between art and life
Mastery of Dramatic Form and Technique
- Throughout his career, Ibsen showcased his mastery of dramatic structure, dialogue, and characterization, becoming a pivotal figure in the development of modern realistic drama
- Ibsen's realist plays helped popularize the "well-made play" formula, with its careful exposition, rising action, climax, and resolution, as well as its emphasis on causality and continuity between acts
- At the same time, Ibsen subverted and challenged many of the conventions of 19th-century theater, such as the use of asides and soliloquies, the reliance on coincidence and contrivance, and the demand for a clear moral message
- Ibsen's innovative use of stage directions, off-stage action, and pregnant pauses added new dimensions of realism and psychological depth to his plays, influencing later playwrights like Chekhov and Strindberg
- Even as he experimented with new symbolic and poetic techniques in his later plays, Ibsen remained committed to the fundamental dramatic principles of action, conflict, and character development, cementing his reputation as a master craftsman of the stage
Key Terms to Review (29)
A Doll's House: A Doll's House is a groundbreaking play written by Henrik Ibsen in 1879, which centers on the life of Nora Helmer and her struggles within a patriarchal society. This play marked a significant shift in modern drama by highlighting the themes of gender roles, marriage, and individual freedom, thus contributing to discussions about social critique and realism in theatre.
An enemy of the people: An enemy of the people is a phrase used to describe someone who is viewed as a threat to the welfare and values of the society, often a central theme in the works of Henrik Ibsen. This term connects to Ibsen's exploration of individual versus societal norms, particularly in his play 'An Enemy of the People,' where a doctor fights against public opinion to reveal a dangerous environmental truth. The concept embodies themes of moral integrity, social responsibility, and the consequences of dissent in a conformist society.
Arthur Miller: Arthur Miller was a prominent American playwright known for his impactful works that explored themes of morality, social responsibility, and the American Dream. His writing often reflected the struggles of individuals against societal pressures, making him a key figure in American theatre and its evolution during the mid-20th century.
Brand: A brand is a unique identity or image that represents a product, service, or individual in the marketplace, encompassing elements such as logos, names, symbols, and the overall perception in the minds of consumers. In the context of Ibsen's life and works, the term relates to how his plays have created a lasting legacy that defines his contributions to modern theatre.
Censorship: Censorship is the suppression or restriction of speech, public communication, or other information, often implemented by authorities or governing bodies. This practice aims to control what can be expressed or disseminated, particularly in the context of art and literature, and has significant implications for freedom of expression and societal values. In theatre, censorship plays a crucial role in shaping what themes and narratives are permissible, often reflecting cultural norms and political climates.
Controversy: Controversy refers to a prolonged public disagreement or heated discussion about a particular issue, often marked by differing opinions and strong emotional responses. In the context of modern theatre, it can highlight societal tensions and provoke dialogue on important themes through dramatic works that challenge the status quo and invite diverse perspectives.
Exile in Italy: Exile in Italy refers to the period when playwright Henrik Ibsen lived in Italy, primarily from 1864 to 1868, after facing political and personal challenges in his native Norway. This time was crucial for Ibsen's development as a playwright, as it allowed him to break away from societal constraints and experiment with new ideas, leading to the creation of some of his most significant works.
Fourth wall: The fourth wall is an imaginary barrier between the audience and the performers in a theatrical setting, which allows for a realistic portrayal of the story without direct interaction with the audience. This concept enhances the immersive experience of the performance, allowing spectators to engage with the narrative while remaining unseen. Breaking the fourth wall involves acknowledging the audience's presence, thus altering the traditional relationship between the two.
Gender roles: Gender roles are the expectations and behaviors that society considers appropriate for individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles often dictate how people should act, dress, and interact within various social contexts, influencing identity and personal choices. In many literary works, especially in the realm of modern and postmodern theatre, gender roles are critically examined, revealing the constraints they impose and exploring the struggles of individuals against societal norms.
Ghosts: In the context of modern theatre, 'ghosts' represent the haunting presence of the past, often symbolizing unresolved issues or traumas that affect the characters' lives. This theme serves as a metaphor for personal and societal struggles, highlighting the consequences of hidden truths and repressed memories in both personal narratives and broader social critiques.
Hedda Gabler: Hedda Gabler is a play written by Henrik Ibsen, first published in 1890, which centers around the complex character of Hedda, a strong-willed and manipulative woman. The play explores themes of societal constraints, the struggle for autonomy, and the impact of personal desires in a repressive society, connecting it to the broader conversations of modernism and realism in theatre.
Individualism: Individualism is a social and political philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual and advocates for personal independence and self-reliance. This concept became increasingly important during the modernist period, influencing various aspects of art and literature, including the theatre. The rise of individualism can be seen as a response to collective norms, allowing for more personal expression and unique perspectives in dramatic works.
John Gabriel Borkman: John Gabriel Borkman is a play written by Henrik Ibsen in 1896 that explores themes of ambition, failure, and the impact of past choices on the present. The play centers on the character John Gabriel Borkman, a former bank manager whose ambitions led to his downfall and imprisonment, illustrating Ibsen's ongoing critique of societal values and personal aspirations.
Little Eyolf: Little Eyolf is a pivotal character in Henrik Ibsen's play 'Little Eyolf,' which revolves around the themes of guilt, loss, and the complexities of family dynamics. The character is the son of the main characters, Alfred and Rita Allmers, and serves as a catalyst for exploring deeper psychological issues and the consequences of parental neglect. Through Little Eyolf's interactions and the events that unfold after his tragic fate, Ibsen delves into themes of personal responsibility and the impact of societal expectations on individual lives.
Modernism: Modernism is a cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a deliberate break from traditional forms and subjects in art, literature, and theater. It reflects a sense of disillusionment with established norms, seeking new ways of expression to capture the complexities of modern life and the human experience.
Nora Helmer: Nora Helmer is the protagonist of Henrik Ibsen's play 'A Doll's House,' symbolizing the struggle for female identity and independence in a patriarchal society. As a character, she evolves from a seemingly naive and playful wife to a woman who asserts her need for self-discovery, challenging traditional gender roles and societal expectations.
Norwegian Nationalism: Norwegian nationalism refers to the cultural and political movement that emerged in the 19th century, emphasizing the importance of a distinct Norwegian identity, language, and heritage. This movement played a significant role in shaping modern Norway's national consciousness, particularly during the time when the country was striving for independence from Sweden.
Peer Gynt: Peer Gynt is a play written by Henrik Ibsen that was first performed in 1876. It follows the adventures of the title character, a young man who embarks on a quest for identity and self-discovery, which ultimately serves as a critique of societal norms and personal integrity. This work reflects Ibsen's exploration of themes such as individualism, the nature of reality, and the conflict between dreams and social expectations.
Psychological realism: Psychological realism is a style of representation in theatre that focuses on the internal emotional and psychological states of characters, aiming to portray their thoughts, feelings, and motivations in a truthful and relatable manner. This approach often emphasizes character development and the complexities of human behavior, reflecting a deeper understanding of individual psychology and societal influences.
Realism: Realism is a theatrical movement that emerged in the late 19th century, aiming to represent everyday life and society with a focus on authenticity and unembellished portrayals of characters and situations. It sought to move away from romanticism and melodrama by emphasizing the ordinary and often harsh realities of life, thus influencing various playwrights, actors, and directors.
Rosmersholm: Rosmersholm is a play written by Henrik Ibsen in 1886, which explores themes of morality, societal expectations, and the struggle between personal desires and social obligations. The play is set in a decaying estate and revolves around the lives of the characters as they confront their pasts and navigate the complexities of love, guilt, and redemption, highlighting Ibsen's critical view of contemporary society and individualism.
Social critique: Social critique refers to the examination and evaluation of societal structures, practices, and beliefs, often with the aim of highlighting injustices and advocating for change. It plays a crucial role in art and literature, where creators reflect on the social issues of their time and encourage audiences to think critically about their own societies.
Subtext: Subtext refers to the underlying meaning or implicit ideas in dialogue or action, which may not be immediately visible but convey deeper emotions or themes. It is essential for understanding characters’ true intentions and motivations, enriching the narrative and enhancing the audience's engagement with the performance.
Tennessee Williams: Tennessee Williams was an influential American playwright known for his evocative plays that explored complex human emotions and societal issues, particularly in the Southern United States. His works often reflect themes of desire, loneliness, and the struggle for personal identity, drawing on elements of poetic realism and Southern Gothic traditions.
The Lady from the Sea: The Lady from the Sea is a play by Henrik Ibsen that premiered in 1888, exploring themes of identity, freedom, and the struggle between reality and illusion. The play centers on Ellida Wangel, a woman caught between her duties as a wife and her yearning for a more adventurous life, symbolized by the mysterious figure of the 'Lady from the Sea'. This work reflects Ibsen's deeper examinations of human psychology and societal constraints, linking it to his broader body of work that often challenges traditional roles and expectations.
The master builder: The master builder is a term that refers to an individual who possesses both artistic vision and technical expertise in the creation of structures and spaces, particularly in the context of architecture and stage design. This figure often symbolizes the role of the artist as a creator, emphasizing the importance of the individual's creative force in shaping both physical and theatrical environments. This concept connects to the broader themes of individuality and artistic authority seen in modernist works.
The pillars of society: The pillars of society refer to the fundamental structures and institutions that support and uphold the functioning of a community or civilization, including family, education, religion, economy, and government. In the context of modern theatre, especially in the works of playwrights like Ibsen, these pillars often serve as a framework to explore social issues, individual struggles, and the moral dilemmas faced by characters as they navigate their roles within society.
The Wild Duck: The Wild Duck is a significant play written by Henrik Ibsen, first performed in 1884. The play explores complex themes of truth, illusion, and the impact of personal choices on family dynamics, particularly through the lens of a seemingly happy household that harbors deep-seated secrets. It reflects Ibsen's mastery in portraying psychological depth and moral ambiguity, making it one of his major works that demonstrates the transition from traditional to modernist drama.
When We Dead Awaken: 'When We Dead Awaken' is the final play written by Henrik Ibsen, first performed in 1900. It explores themes of existentialism, self-realization, and the struggles between artistic ambition and personal relationships. This work showcases Ibsen's shift towards modernism, encapsulating his critique of societal norms and the search for meaning in life, making it a critical piece in understanding Ibsen's impact on modern theatre.