12.4 The beginnings of expressionism in theatre
6 min read•august 13, 2024
in theatre emerged as a reaction against realism, seeking to portray inner emotional states through distorted, stylized elements. This movement prioritized subjective experiences, using exaggerated sets, costumes, and acting to convey characters' psychological realities and critique modern society.
Major expressionist playwrights like Strindberg, Kaiser, and Toller explored themes of and . Their works influenced later avant-garde movements, challenging theatrical conventions and paving the way for continued experimentation in contemporary theatre.
Expressionist Theatre Characteristics
Reaction Against Realism and Naturalism
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- Emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against realism and naturalism
- Sought to express inner emotional states and subjective experiences rather than depicting external reality
- Prioritized the representation of characters' psychological realities over objective depictions of the world
Distorted and Stylized Theatrical Elements
- Distorted and exaggerated sets, costumes, and makeup reflect characters' inner turmoil and subjective perceptions
- Non-linear and fragmented plot structures represent the fragmentation of the self and the chaotic nature of modern life
- Heightened, stylized acting techniques externalize characters' emotions and psychological states
- Exaggerated gestures, vocal distortions, and rhythmic movements convey inner experiences
Themes of Alienation and Individuality
- Explores themes of alienation, anxiety, and the struggle for individuality in an increasingly mechanized and dehumanizing modern world
- Characters often grapple with feelings of isolation, despair, and the loss of identity in the face of societal pressures and expectations
- Plays critique the dehumanizing effects of industrialization, war, and social conformity
Evoking Emotional Responses
- Aims to evoke strong emotional responses from the audience by presenting the inner psychological reality of characters and their experiences
- Creates a visceral and that invites the audience to empathize with characters' struggles
- Seeks to confront the deeper truths of the human condition and provoke introspection and reflection
Visual Art and Literature Influence
Expressionist Visual Art Movement
- Heavily influenced by the visual art movement of expressionism, which emerged in Germany in the early 20th century
- Emphasized , emotional intensity, and distorted representations of reality
- Expressionist painters (Edvard Munch, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Wassily Kandinsky) used bold colors, jagged lines, and exaggerated forms to convey inner emotional states
- Inspired similar techniques in expressionist stage design and acting, such as abstract sets and stylized performances
Expressionist Literature
- Influenced by expressionist literature, particularly the works of Franz Kafka and
- Explored themes of alienation, anxiety, and the fragmentation of the self, which were central to expressionist drama
- Dream-like imagery, symbolic characters, and surreal situations in expressionist literature influenced the non-linear and fragmented narrative structures of expressionist plays
- Literary techniques, such as stream-of-consciousness narration and interior monologue, were adapted for the stage to represent characters' inner experiences
Major Expressionist Playwrights
August Strindberg (Swedish)
- Considered a precursor to expressionism with his "dream plays" ("A Dream Play" 1901, "" 1907)
- Explored the inner workings of the human psyche through surreal and symbolic imagery
- Pioneered the use of subjective and structures to represent characters' psychological states
Georg Kaiser (German)
- Wrote several influential expressionist plays ("" 1912, "" 1914)
- Used stylized acting and abstract set designs to convey characters' emotional states
- Explored themes of individual alienation and the search for meaning in a dehumanizing modern world
Ernst Toller (German)
- Addressed political and social issues in his expressionist works ("" 1921, "" 1923)
- Critiqued the dehumanizing effects of war and industrialization on individuals and society
- Used symbolic characters and allegorical narratives to convey political messages and advocate for social change
Elmer Rice (American)
- Incorporated expressionist techniques in his plays ("" 1923, "" 1929)
- Explored the alienation and mechanization of modern life through stylized sets, acting, and dialogue
- Adapted expressionist themes and techniques to the American context, addressing issues of conformity and the loss of individuality in a capitalist society
Expressionism and Subjective Experience
Depicting Inner Emotional and Psychological States
- Seeks to depict the inner emotional and psychological states of characters, prioritizing subjective experience over objective reality
- Uses symbolic characters, dream-like imagery, and surreal situations to represent the inner turmoil, desires, and fears of the protagonists
- Aims to create a visceral and immersive experience for the audience, inviting them to empathize with the characters' psychological struggles
Distorted and Exaggerated Staging Elements
- Set designs feature distorted and exaggerated elements that reflect characters' subjective perceptions of their environment (jagged lines, bold colors, abstract shapes)
- Lighting and sound effects create atmospheric and emotional landscapes that correspond to characters' inner experiences
- Costumes and makeup are stylized and exaggerated to externalize characters' emotional states and psychological traits
Stylized and Heightened Performance Techniques
- Actors employ stylized and heightened performance techniques to externalize characters' inner states and emotions
- Exaggerated gestures, vocal distortions, and rhythmic movements convey characters' psychological turmoil and subjective experiences
- Non-naturalistic acting styles prioritize the expression of inner truths over realistic portrayal of characters
Confronting the Human Condition
- By focusing on subjective experience, expressionist theatre aims to confront the deeper truths of the human condition
- Explores universal themes of alienation, anxiety, and the search for meaning in a chaotic and dehumanizing world
- Invites the audience to reflect on their own inner experiences and the psychological struggles that define the modern human experience
Legacy of Expressionist Theatre
Challenging Theatrical Conventions
- Challenged traditional theatrical conventions and paved the way for later avant-garde movements
- Explored the boundaries of theatrical form and content, prioritizing experimentation and innovation over realism and naturalism
- Inspired later theatre practitioners to push the limits of what is possible on stage and to explore new ways of representing human experience
Influence on Constructivist Theatre
- The use of abstract and symbolic elements in expressionist set design influenced the development of constructivist theatre in Russia
- Constructivist theatre emphasized the functional and mechanical aspects of the stage, using industrial materials and geometric shapes to create dynamic and symbolic environments
- Expressionist techniques of and exaggeration were adapted to serve the political and social aims of constructivist theatre
Impact on Surrealist Theatre
- The psychological themes and subjective focus of expressionist theatre influenced the development of surrealist theatre
- Surrealist theatre sought to tap into the unconscious mind and explore the irrational aspects of human experience
- Expressionist techniques of dream-like imagery, symbolic characters, and non-linear narratives were expanded upon in surrealist plays to create a sense of psychological disorientation and to challenge the boundaries of reality
Resonance with Political Theatre Movements
- Expressionist theatre's critique of modern society and its dehumanizing effects resonated with later political theatre movements (Epic Theatre, Theatre of the Absurd)
- These movements used similar techniques of distortion, symbolism, and stylization to address social and existential issues
- Expressionist themes of alienation, conformity, and the loss of individuality were adapted to serve the political and philosophical aims of these later movements
Continued Experimentation in Contemporary Theatre
- The legacy of expressionist theatre can be seen in the continued experimentation with non-linear narratives, symbolic imagery, and stylized performance techniques in contemporary theatre
- Contemporary playwrights and directors continue to explore the relationship between the inner world of characters and the outer world of the stage, using expressionist techniques to create immersive and emotionally resonant experiences for audiences
- Expressionist theatre's emphasis on subjective experience and psychological depth has become a key aspect of modern theatrical practice, influencing the way stories are told and characters are portrayed on stage
Key Terms to Review (27)
Alienation: Alienation is a theatrical technique aimed at creating a sense of distance between the audience and the performance, encouraging critical reflection rather than emotional involvement. This concept became prominent during the early expressionist movement, where the intention was to provoke thought and awareness regarding social issues and the human condition, rather than simply engaging the audience's feelings. It serves as a way for performers to break the fourth wall, inviting viewers to analyze the themes and messages presented in the play.
Alienation effect: The alienation effect is a theatrical technique intended to prevent the audience from becoming emotionally involved in the play, instead prompting them to critically engage with the social and political themes presented. This effect challenges the audience's expectations of traditional narrative storytelling, encouraging them to reflect on the play's message rather than just get lost in the characters' emotions. It is closely associated with expressionism, where heightened emotional states and abstract forms convey deeper truths about human existence.
August Strindberg: August Strindberg was a Swedish playwright and novelist known for his influential works that laid the groundwork for modern drama, particularly in the realm of naturalism and expressionism. His plays often explore complex themes such as human psychology, class struggles, and the conflicts between men and women, significantly impacting the trajectory of theatre in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Bauhaus: Bauhaus was a revolutionary school of art and design founded in Germany in 1919, aiming to unify art, craft, and technology. It profoundly influenced modern architecture, design, and art movements by promoting functionalism and minimalism while breaking down the barriers between fine arts and applied arts. The emphasis on simplicity and practicality in Bauhaus principles set the stage for many artistic movements, including expressionism in theatre, as it encouraged innovative approaches to visual storytelling and performance design.
Die brücke: Die Brücke, or 'The Bridge,' was an important group of German expressionist artists and playwrights formed in Dresden in 1905. This movement aimed to break away from traditional artistic forms and create a new, emotionally charged style that reflected the tumultuous societal changes of the early 20th century. By focusing on individual experiences and emotions, die brücke laid the groundwork for modern expressionist theatre and emphasized the importance of personal perception in art.
Distortion: Distortion refers to the alteration of reality or perception, often used in artistic expressions to evoke emotional responses or highlight underlying themes. In theatre, distortion is employed to challenge the audience's understanding of truth and reality, particularly through exaggerated forms, disjointed narratives, and stylized performances that reflect inner emotions rather than external appearances.
Elmer Rice: Elmer Rice was an American playwright, director, and novelist known for his influential works that contributed to the development of expressionism in theatre. His most notable play, 'The Adding Machine,' showcases the alienation and mechanization of modern life, embodying the themes of expressionism by focusing on the emotional experience over realism. Rice's innovative approach helped pave the way for future playwrights who sought to challenge traditional forms and explore deeper psychological themes.
Emotional truth: Emotional truth refers to the authentic and genuine expression of feelings and emotions in performance, which resonates deeply with the audience. It emphasizes the importance of portraying characters' internal experiences in a way that feels real and relatable, allowing viewers to connect on a personal level. This concept is central to various theatrical movements and practices that prioritize sincerity over mere representation.
Ernst Toller: Ernst Toller was a German playwright, poet, and political activist associated with the Expressionist movement in theatre during the early 20th century. His works often expressed deep emotional responses to the social and political turmoil of his time, reflecting the alienation and existential angst that characterized Expressionism. Toller’s contributions helped shape the movement by emphasizing subjective experience and the inner turmoil of individuals against the backdrop of a rapidly changing world.
Expressionism: Expressionism is an artistic movement that seeks to convey emotional experiences rather than physical reality, often using exaggerated forms and vivid colors. In theatre, it emphasizes the subjective experience of characters, prioritizing their internal emotions over a realistic portrayal of events. This approach was a reaction against the naturalism that dominated the stage, allowing for a more abstract and intense exploration of human feelings.
From Morn to Midnight: From Morn to Midnight is a play by German playwright Georg Kaiser, created in 1912, that is often cited as a significant early example of expressionism in theatre. The play depicts a single day in the life of a bank clerk who, disillusioned with the monotony of his existence, embarks on a journey that leads him through various encounters with society and ultimately to existential despair. This work captures the essence of expressionism by emphasizing emotional experience over traditional narrative structure, reflecting the inner turmoil and alienation felt by individuals in an increasingly industrialized world.
Georg Kaiser: Georg Kaiser was a prominent German playwright known for his influential works during the early 20th century, particularly within the expressionist movement. His plays often explore themes of alienation, the human condition, and societal issues, reflecting the tumultuous environment of post-World War I Germany. Kaiser’s innovative use of language and structure helped shape the expressionist style in theatre, making him a significant figure in the development of modern drama.
German Expressionism: German Expressionism was an artistic movement that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by a focus on emotional experience rather than physical reality. In theatre, it sought to express the inner feelings of characters through stylized performances, abstract settings, and exaggerated movements, often reflecting the turmoil of society during the post-World War I era.
Hinkemann: Hinkemann is a pivotal expressionist play written by Ernst Toller in 1918 that reflects the disillusionment and trauma of post-World War I Germany. The play revolves around a soldier who returns from war with a disfigured face and struggles to reintegrate into a society that has lost its humanity. This work captures the emotional turmoil of individuals grappling with the horrors of war and the societal changes that followed, marking a significant moment in the emergence of expressionism in theatre.
Immersive experience: An immersive experience refers to a deeply engaging and interactive encounter where participants are fully absorbed in an environment or narrative, often blurring the lines between reality and performance. This concept is significant in theatre, particularly in expressionism, as it emphasizes emotional involvement and sensory engagement, allowing audiences to connect with the material on a personal level.
Individuality: Individuality refers to the qualities and characteristics that make a person unique, distinct from others, and self-expressive. In the context of expressionism in theatre, individuality emphasizes the importance of personal experience and emotions, breaking away from traditional norms and exploring subjective truths. This focus on individual perspective allows artists to convey deeper psychological realities and societal critiques through their work.
Industrial revolution: The industrial revolution was a period of major industrialization that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, marked by the transition from agrarian economies to industrialized and urban ones. This shift had profound effects on society, culture, and the economy, influencing art, literature, and performance forms, including theatre.
Masses man: The term 'masses man' refers to an archetype of individuals who are characterized by their conformity to societal norms and values, often depicted in early 20th-century art and literature as a representative of the collective, rather than the individual. This figure reflects the shift towards a more communal identity that arose in response to the rapid changes and anxieties of urbanization, industrialization, and the social upheaval that marked this period, particularly during the rise of expressionism in theatre.
Non-linear narrative: A non-linear narrative is a storytelling technique where events are presented out of chronological order, allowing for multiple perspectives and layers of meaning. This approach can create a more complex emotional experience and encourage the audience to engage actively with the material, reflecting the fragmented nature of human perception and reality. Non-linear narratives often feature flashbacks, flash-forwards, or parallel storylines that contribute to the overall thematic depth of a work.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature over reason and classical ideals. It profoundly influenced theatre by encouraging dramatic forms that prioritized personal experience and the exploration of human emotions, leading to a shift in themes, styles, and character development.
Subjective experience: Subjective experience refers to the personal, individual perception and interpretation of events, emotions, and situations, shaped by one's own thoughts, feelings, and background. In the context of theatre, this concept emphasizes how different audiences may respond uniquely to a performance based on their own life experiences, cultural backgrounds, and emotional states. This individuality in perception becomes particularly significant in expressionism, where the focus is on representing inner feelings and personal realities rather than external realities.
The Adding Machine: The Adding Machine is a play written by Elmer Rice in 1923 that symbolizes the dehumanizing effects of modernity and technology on individuals in the workplace. The story revolves around Mr. Zero, an accountant who is replaced by an adding machine, showcasing the tension between human existence and mechanical efficiency, a central theme in the early expressions of expressionism in theatre.
The Citizens of Calais: The Citizens of Calais refers to a historical event in 1347 during the Hundred Years' War, where six leaders from the besieged French town of Calais volunteered to surrender themselves to King Edward III of England in hopes of saving their city and its inhabitants. This act of self-sacrifice is emblematic of themes explored in early expressionism, as it represents intense emotional experiences and the struggle between personal morality and societal pressure.
The dream play: The dream play is a theatrical form that blends reality and fantasy, often portraying the subconscious thoughts and emotions of characters through surreal and symbolic imagery. This style emphasizes subjective experience, allowing the audience to engage with the characters' inner worlds rather than adhering strictly to linear narratives. The dream play serves as an important vehicle for expressionism, reflecting deeper psychological themes and societal anxieties.
The Ghost Sonata: The Ghost Sonata is a one-act play written by Swedish playwright August Strindberg in 1907 that exemplifies the early stages of expressionism in theatre. This work is known for its surreal and symbolic narrative, focusing on themes of isolation, existential dread, and the darker aspects of human nature. The play uses a dreamlike structure, which allows for emotional expression rather than a linear plot, showcasing the movement toward expressionism that would later influence many modern theatrical forms.
The subway: The subway is a rapid transit system that operates primarily underground, providing efficient transportation in urban areas. Its development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries transformed city life by enabling the movement of large populations and influencing the cultural landscape, including theatre.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, primarily involving European nations and their empires. This war marked a significant turning point in history, as it led to profound social, political, and cultural changes, paving the way for the emergence of new artistic movements, including expressionism in theatre. The devastating consequences of the war inspired artists and playwrights to explore themes of disillusionment and the human condition through innovative and often non-traditional forms of expression.