5.4 Christianity in Korea
8 min read•august 21, 2024
Christianity in Korea emerged through complex interactions between foreign missionaries, local converts, and geopolitical changes. It significantly impacted Korean society, culture, and politics from the late Joseon dynasty to the modern era.
The spread of Christianity in Korea led to unique developments, including indigenous movements and theologies. These reflected Korea's historical context and social issues, blending with local traditions and shaping the country's religious landscape.
Origins of Korean Christianity
- Christianity in Korea emerged through complex historical processes involving foreign missionaries, local converts, and geopolitical changes
- The introduction and spread of Christianity significantly impacted Korean society, culture, and politics throughout the late Joseon dynasty and into the modern era
Early missionary activities
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- First Christian contacts occurred in the late 16th century through Jesuit missionaries in China
- Korean envoys to Beijing encountered Catholicism and brought religious texts back to Korea
- Protestant missionaries arrived in the late 19th century, establishing schools and hospitals
- Medical missionaries like gained favor with the royal court, facilitating further
Catholicism in Joseon dynasty
- , baptized in Beijing in 1784, became the first Korean Catholic
- Catholicism spread among yangban (elite) class, attracting intellectuals interested in Western learning
- Periodic persecutions (Catholic Persecution of 1801) led to thousands of martyrs
- French missionaries clandestinely entered Korea in the 1830s, strengthening the Catholic community
Protestant missions in Korea
- American Presbyterian missionary Horace Allen arrived in 1884, gaining influence through medical work
- and established the first Protestant churches in 1885
- Protestant missions focused on education, healthcare, and Bible translation
- The promoted self-propagation, self-government, and self-support among Korean Christians
Korean Christian movements
- Korean Christianity developed unique characteristics as it interacted with local culture and traditions
- Indigenous movements and theologies emerged, reflecting Korea's historical context and social issues
Donghak and Christianity
- (Eastern Learning) movement incorporated elements of Christianity into its syncretic belief system
- Similarities between Donghak and Christianity included monotheism and emphasis on social reform
- Some Donghak followers later converted to Christianity, bringing elements of their previous beliefs
- Both movements challenged traditional Confucian social hierarchies and promoted egalitarian ideas
Indigenous Korean churches
- founded the Korean Methodist Church in 1930, promoting independence from foreign missions
- The split from foreign missions in 1907, establishing self-governance
- 's revival movement emphasized spiritual experiences and Korean cultural elements
- The Church of Jesus in Korea, founded by Yong-do Lee, blended Pentecostal practices with Korean spirituality
Minjung theology
- Developed in the 1970s as a response to social and political oppression in South Korea
- Emphasized liberation of the oppressed (minjung) and social justice
- Interpreted Jesus as a representative of the minjung, challenging traditional theological concepts
- Influenced Christian involvement in pro-democracy movements and labor rights activism
Christianity during Japanese rule
- The period of Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945) significantly impacted the development of Korean Christianity
- Christian institutions played complex roles in both resistance to and accommodation with colonial authorities
Missionaries and colonial resistance
- Some missionaries supported Korean independence movements, providing resources and international connections
- of 1919 involved significant Christian participation and leadership
- Missionaries documented and reported on Japanese atrocities, raising international awareness
- Colonial authorities viewed Christian institutions with suspicion, leading to increased surveillance and restrictions
Christian education in Korea
- Mission schools provided modern education, including science, mathematics, and foreign languages
- Christian educational institutions promoted literacy and women's education
- , founded by Methodist missionary Mary Scranton, became a pioneer in women's higher education
- Colonial authorities increasingly pressured Christian schools to conform to Japanese educational policies
Shinto shrine controversy
- Japanese authorities mandated in schools and public institutions
- Many Christians refused to participate, viewing it as idolatry and a violation of their faith
- The controversy led to the closure of some Christian schools and the imprisonment of resisters
- Different Christian denominations and individuals adopted varying stances, from accommodation to martyrdom
Post-liberation Christian growth
- The period following Korea's liberation from Japanese rule in 1945 saw rapid expansion of Christianity
- American influence and anti-communist sentiment contributed to Christianity's growth and social influence
American influence post-1945
- U.S. military presence and aid programs increased exposure to American-style Christianity
- American missionaries returned in large numbers, establishing new churches and institutions
- Korean Christians who had studied in the U.S. assumed leadership roles in churches and society
- American support bolstered the social and political influence of Christian leaders like
Christianity vs communism
- Christianity became strongly associated with anti-communism in South Korea
- Many Christian refugees from North Korea reinforced anti-communist sentiments in southern churches
- Christian organizations received support from the U.S. and South Korean governments for anti-communist activities
- The (1950-1953) further solidified the alignment of Christianity with anti-communism
Rapid church expansion
- The number of Christians in South Korea grew from about 2% in 1945 to over 30% by the 1980s
- Urbanization and social upheaval created opportunities for church growth in cities
- Revival meetings and mass evangelism campaigns attracted large numbers of converts
- The growth of (Full Gospel Central Church) and other megachurches exemplified the rapid expansion
Christianity in modern Korea
- Christianity has become a major social and cultural force in contemporary South Korea
- The growth of megachurches and increased political involvement have shaped Korean Christianity's public image
Megachurches and prosperity gospel
- South Korea is home to several of the world's largest Christian congregations ()
- , emphasizing material blessings as a sign of faith, gained popularity
- Megachurches offer extensive social services, including education, healthcare, and community programs
- Critics argue that some megachurches prioritize growth and wealth over spiritual and ethical concerns
Christian political involvement
- Christian leaders have played significant roles in South Korean politics since independence
- Conservative Christian groups actively lobby for policies aligned with their religious views
- Progressive Christian organizations advocate for social justice and human rights issues
- The Christian vote is courted by political parties, particularly on issues like North Korea policy and
Overseas Korean missionaries
- South Korea has become one of the world's largest senders of Christian missionaries
- work in various countries, including Muslim-majority nations and China
- The missionary zeal reflects the Korean church's emphasis on evangelism and global outreach
- Some Korean missionary activities have faced criticism for cultural insensitivity and aggressive proselytizing
Social impact of Christianity
- Christianity has significantly influenced various aspects of Korean society beyond religious practice
- Its impact on education, women's rights, and cultural norms has been both transformative and controversial
Education and modernization
- Christian schools and universities played a crucial role in introducing modern education to Korea
- Mission schools promoted literacy, scientific knowledge, and critical thinking skills
- Christian educational institutions often served as centers for social and political activism
- The emphasis on education within Christian communities contributed to social mobility for converts
Women's rights and Christianity
- Christian missions promoted education for women, challenging traditional gender roles
- Female missionaries and Korean Christian women established schools and social welfare programs
- Christianity provided new leadership and public speaking opportunities for women in churches
- Some aspects of Christian teachings reinforced patriarchal norms, leading to complex outcomes for women's rights
Christian influence on Korean culture
- Christian concepts of linear time and progress influenced Korean historical consciousness
- The Korean church calendar and Christian holidays have become part of mainstream culture
- Christian-influenced ideas about (individual salvation) and (personal relationship with God) shaped Korean spirituality
- The prominence of church buildings and Christian symbols has altered Korea's architectural and visual landscape
Challenges and controversies
- Korean Christianity faces various challenges as it navigates its role in a rapidly changing society
- Tensions between traditional beliefs, denominational differences, and generational shifts create ongoing debates
Christianity vs traditional beliefs
- Conflicts arise between Christian teachings and Confucian values (ancestor veneration)
- Some Christians reject traditional practices as superstitious, while others seek to integrate them
- Buddhist-Christian dialogues and conflicts reflect ongoing religious pluralism in Korea
- Shamanic practices continue to influence popular Christianity, creating syncretistic forms of faith
Sectarian conflicts
- Divisions between conservative and progressive Christian groups have intensified
- Doctrinal disputes lead to church splits and the formation of new denominations
- Interfaith tensions, particularly between Protestants and Catholics, persist in some areas
- Competition for members and resources among different Christian groups can lead to ethical concerns
Declining youth participation
- Younger generations show decreasing interest in traditional church attendance
- Secularization and alternative spiritual practices attract some youth away from Christianity
- Churches struggle to address contemporary social issues relevant to younger Koreans (LGBTQ+ rights)
- Some youth criticize perceived materialism and conservatism in established churches
Christianity in North Korea
- The history of Christianity in North Korea contrasts sharply with its southern counterpart
- Severe restrictions on have led to the near-extinction of open Christian practice
Early Christian presence
- Pyongyang was once known as the "Jerusalem of the East" due to its strong Christian community
- Many prominent early Korean Christian leaders came from the northern regions
- Christian institutions played significant roles in education and healthcare before the division
- The () in Pyongyang had a lasting impact on Korean Protestant Christianity
Persecution under Kim regime
- The establishment of the DPRK led to systematic suppression of religious activities
- Many Christians fled to the South or were imprisoned, executed, or sent to labor camps
- The state ideology of Juche replaced traditional religions as the official belief system
- Official state-controlled churches exist but are widely regarded as propaganda tools
Underground churches
- Reports suggest the existence of secret house churches throughout North Korea
- Defectors describe clandestine Christian practices and networks for sharing religious materials
- International organizations attempt to support North Korean Christians through various means
- The exact number of underground believers remains unknown due to the secretive nature of their faith
Korean Christianity globally
- Korean Christianity has expanded its influence beyond national borders
- The Korean diaspora and missionary movements have contributed to a global Korean Christian presence
Korean diaspora churches
- Korean immigrant communities establish churches that serve as cultural and social centers
- Diaspora churches often maintain connections with denominations and movements in South Korea
- Second and third-generation Korean Christians navigate between Korean and local Christian cultures
- Some diaspora churches engage in missionary work among non-Korean populations in their host countries
Korean missionary activities abroad
- South Korean churches send missionaries to various countries, including the (10/40 Window)
- Korean missionaries often emphasize church planting, education, and social welfare projects
- Some Korean mission strategies focus on unreached people groups and closed countries
- Criticisms include concerns about cultural sensitivity and potential political implications in host countries
Global influence of Korean Christianity
- Korean worship styles and church growth strategies have influenced churches worldwide
- The prayer mountain movement and emphasis on early morning prayer have spread to other countries
- Korean Christian literature and theological works are increasingly translated and distributed globally
- International religious leaders and scholars study the Korean church as a model of rapid growth and social impact
Key Terms to Review (37)
Catholic Church: The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, led by the Pope and characterized by its traditions, teachings, and sacramental life. It plays a crucial role in the spread of Christianity, particularly in Korea, where it has significantly influenced social, political, and cultural dynamics since its introduction in the late 18th century.
Catholic persecution in korea: Catholic persecution in Korea refers to the systematic oppression and violence faced by Korean Catholics, particularly during the late 18th and 19th centuries, as a response to their growing influence and perceived challenge to Confucian societal norms. This persecution included state-sponsored violence, imprisonment, and execution, aimed at suppressing the Catholic faith and maintaining traditional Confucian values within society.
Cultural Adaptation: Cultural adaptation refers to the process through which individuals or groups adjust to a new culture by incorporating its values, beliefs, and practices while often blending them with their own existing cultural frameworks. This dynamic process can significantly impact religious practices, societal norms, and community structures, especially when a foreign culture interacts with established traditions, such as the introduction of Christianity in a new region.
Donghak: Donghak, meaning 'Eastern Learning,' is a religious and social movement that emerged in Korea during the late 19th century as a response to foreign influence and domestic strife. It blended Confucianism, Buddhism, and shamanistic beliefs, emphasizing moral teachings and social justice. Donghak aimed to empower the common people against oppressive forces and played a significant role in shaping new religious movements in Korea, especially as it intersected with the rise of Christianity in the region.
Ewha Womans University: Ewha Womans University is a private women's university located in Seoul, South Korea, founded in 1886 by Methodist missionary Mary F. Scranton. It holds the distinction of being the first women's university in Korea and has played a pivotal role in the education of women and the promotion of Christianity in the country. The university's establishment marked a significant step towards women's empowerment and was closely linked to the spread of Christian values and education in Korea.
Great Revival of 1907: The Great Revival of 1907 was a significant religious movement in Korea that saw a surge in Christian conversions and revitalization of faith, marked by mass gatherings and fervent prayers. This movement is pivotal in understanding the growth of Christianity in Korea, as it led to the establishment of new churches and invigorated existing congregations, significantly impacting Korean society and culture.
Henry Appenzeller: Henry Appenzeller was a pivotal American missionary who played a significant role in the introduction and spread of Christianity in Korea during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His efforts helped establish educational institutions and churches, contributing to the growth of the Protestant movement in Korea and influencing social reforms and modernization in the region.
History of Korean Christianity: The history of Korean Christianity refers to the development and impact of Christian faith in Korea, which began in the late 18th century and grew significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries. This period is marked by the establishment of various denominations, the influence of Western missionaries, and the role of Christianity in shaping Korean identity, particularly during times of conflict and social change.
Horace Allen: Horace Allen was an American Presbyterian missionary and physician who played a significant role in introducing Christianity to Korea in the late 19th century. His efforts laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Protestant church in Korea, and he is recognized as one of the first foreign missionaries to work extensively in the region, contributing both spiritually and medically.
Horace Underwood: Horace Underwood was a prominent American Presbyterian missionary who played a significant role in the introduction and spread of Christianity in Korea during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He established the first Protestant church in Korea and contributed to educational efforts, promoting the importance of literacy and Western-style education among Koreans.
Japanese Occupation: The Japanese Occupation refers to the period from 1910 to 1945 when Korea was under Japanese colonial rule. This era significantly altered various aspects of Korean society, including language, family structure, religious practices, and ultimately, the political landscape leading to Korea's division after World War II.
Jesa ceremony: The jesa ceremony is a traditional Korean ritual honoring ancestors, often conducted during significant occasions such as holidays or family gatherings. This practice involves setting a table with food offerings, performing specific rites, and paying respects to deceased family members, reflecting deep-rooted Confucian values in Korean culture. The jesa ceremony plays a significant role in maintaining familial bonds and preserving cultural heritage, even within the context of growing Christian influences in Korea.
Kim Il-sung: Kim Il-sung was the founding leader of North Korea, serving as its supreme leader from its establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. His leadership significantly shaped the political landscape of North Korea and influenced various aspects of Korean society, including family values, religion, land reform, and international relations.
Korea Church Association: The Korea Church Association (KCA) is a significant organization that represents and unifies Protestant churches in South Korea. Founded in the early 20th century, it played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity across Korea and facilitated collaboration among various denominations, fostering a sense of community and shared purpose among Korean Christians. The KCA also became a voice for social issues, advocating for human rights and justice within the context of Korean society.
Korean Bible: The Korean Bible refers to the translations of the Christian Bible into the Korean language, which played a vital role in the spread of Christianity in Korea. Its introduction in the 19th century helped to make Christian teachings more accessible to the Korean population and has significantly influenced Korean culture, education, and literacy rates.
Korean Council of Churches: The Korean Council of Churches (KCC) is a national ecumenical organization that represents various Protestant denominations in South Korea, formed to promote unity and cooperation among churches. It serves as a platform for addressing social issues, engaging in theological dialogue, and advocating for peace and justice, reflecting the broader role of Christianity in Korean society and culture.
Korean Missionaries: Korean missionaries are individuals from Korea who engage in spreading Christianity both domestically and internationally, often inspired by their faith and a desire to share it with others. These missionaries play a critical role in the development of Christianity in Korea, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as they sought to establish and expand the Christian faith across various regions, including among other Asian nations.
Korean Protestant Revival: The Korean Protestant Revival refers to a significant religious movement that took place in Korea during the early 20th century, characterized by a surge in Protestant Christianity and spiritual fervor among the Korean populace. This revival was marked by mass conversions, the establishment of new churches, and a strong emphasis on evangelism and social reform, fundamentally shaping the landscape of Christianity in Korea and influencing its cultural and social development.
Korean War: The Korean War was a conflict that lasted from 1950 to 1953, marked by the invasion of South Korea by North Korea and subsequent military intervention from the United States and other United Nations forces. The war solidified the division of Korea into two separate states and had lasting implications on the political, social, and economic landscape of both North and South Korea.
Lgbtq+ rights: LGBTQ+ rights refer to the civil rights and social equity issues faced by individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or others within the broader spectrum of sexual and gender identities. These rights encompass a range of legal protections, social acceptance, and access to services, often intersecting with other areas such as religious beliefs, cultural values, and societal norms.
March 1st Movement: The March 1st Movement was a significant nonviolent protest for Korean independence from Japanese colonial rule that began on March 1, 1919. This movement was a key event in Korea's struggle for sovereignty and played a crucial role in galvanizing national consciousness among Koreans, highlighting the growing influence of Christianity and shaping resistance efforts during World War II.
Minjung theology: Minjung theology is a Christian theological perspective that emerged in South Korea during the late 20th century, emphasizing the experiences and struggles of the marginalized and oppressed people, or 'minjung.' This theology seeks to align Christian faith with social justice and the liberation of the poor, often critiquing existing structures of power and advocating for a more just society. It resonates deeply with the historical context of political turmoil and social upheaval in Korea, particularly during the period of authoritarian rule.
Missionary work: Missionary work refers to the activities carried out by individuals or groups to spread religious beliefs, particularly Christianity, and to engage in social services like education and healthcare. In the context of Korea, missionary work played a significant role in introducing Western ideas and cultural practices, while also impacting societal changes and religious dynamics within the country.
Nevius Method: The Nevius Method is an approach to missionary work and church planting developed by the American Presbyterian missionary John Nevius in the late 19th century. This method emphasized the importance of local leadership, self-supporting congregations, and indigenous church growth, aiming to create sustainable Christian communities within Korean society. The Nevius Method has had a lasting impact on the growth of Christianity in Korea and its adaptation to local cultures.
Prayer Mountain Tradition: The Prayer Mountain Tradition refers to the practice among Christians in Korea of gathering at designated mountain locations for communal and individual prayer, emphasizing spiritual renewal and deepening faith. This tradition is rooted in the belief that mountains are sacred spaces that facilitate a closer connection to God, often leading to intense prayer sessions and spiritual retreats. The practice has become an important aspect of Korean Christianity, reflecting both individual spirituality and community worship.
Presbyterian Church of Korea: The Presbyterian Church of Korea is a significant Protestant denomination in South Korea, established in the late 19th century, rooted in Calvinist theology and emphasizing the authority of Scripture and the governance of church affairs by elders. It has played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity in Korea and has been influential in social and political movements throughout the country’s modern history.
Prosperity theology: Prosperity theology is a religious belief that asserts that faith, positive speech, and donations to religious causes can increase one's material wealth and overall well-being. This theology promotes the idea that financial success and physical health are signs of divine favor, often leading to an emphasis on personal prosperity within certain Christian communities. It has gained significant traction in various parts of the world, especially in the context of modern evangelical movements.
Protestantism: Protestantism is a major branch of Christianity that originated in the 16th century during the Reformation, marked by a break from the Roman Catholic Church. It emphasizes the authority of Scripture over church tradition, the priesthood of all believers, and salvation through faith alone. This movement significantly influenced various aspects of culture, society, and religion, especially in regions like Korea where it shaped modern religious landscapes.
Religious freedom: Religious freedom refers to the right of individuals to practice their religion or beliefs without interference or oppression from the government or other entities. This concept encompasses the ability to change one’s religion, express one’s beliefs publicly, and organize religious activities. In the context of Christianity in Korea, religious freedom has been both a source of empowerment and conflict throughout its history.
Seungman Rhee: Seungman Rhee was the first President of South Korea, serving from 1948 to 1960. He played a crucial role in establishing the Republic of Korea after World War II and is known for his staunch anti-communism and efforts to secure U.S. support during the Korean War, which significantly shaped South Korea's political landscape and its relationship with Christianity.
Shinto Shrine Worship: Shinto shrine worship is the practice of revering kami, or spirits, through rituals and offerings at shrines dedicated to them in the Shinto religion, which is indigenous to Japan. This form of worship emphasizes the connection between humans and the divine, often manifesting in rituals that are performed to express gratitude, seek blessings, and maintain harmony with nature. Understanding Shinto shrine worship provides insight into cultural values, beliefs, and practices that may intersect with other religions in the region, including Christianity.
State Religion: A state religion is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state, which often plays a significant role in the governance and cultural identity of a nation. This term is especially relevant when discussing the historical and contemporary relationship between religious practices and political authority, highlighting how religions can influence social norms, laws, and public policy.
Syngman Rhee: Syngman Rhee was the first President of South Korea, serving from 1948 to 1960. He played a crucial role in shaping the early political landscape of the newly established Republic of Korea, navigating through a complex period marked by colonial history, foreign influence, and the division of the Korean Peninsula.
Yi seung-hun: Yi Seung-hun was a pivotal figure in the history of Christianity in Korea, recognized for his efforts in the early 20th century to promote Protestantism and establish a strong Christian community. He played a crucial role in translating the Bible into Korean, making religious texts more accessible and contributing to the spread of Christianity in the region. His work is significant as it laid the foundation for the growth of Protestant denominations in Korea.
Yoido Full Gospel Church: Yoido Full Gospel Church is one of the largest Christian congregations in the world, located in Seoul, South Korea. Founded by David Yonggi Cho in 1958, it emphasizes a Pentecostal approach to worship and has played a significant role in the growth of Christianity in Korea, especially during the late 20th century. The church's dynamic services, focus on healing and prosperity, and its extensive community outreach programs have made it a key player in the Korean religious landscape.
Yong-do Lee: Yong-do Lee was a significant figure in the early spread of Christianity in Korea, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is known for his missionary work and efforts in promoting Christian education, as well as for being one of the first Korean Christians to play a prominent role in the church’s development. His contributions helped lay the groundwork for the establishment of various Christian institutions in Korea.
Yun Chi-ho: Yun Chi-ho was a prominent Korean intellectual, politician, and social reformer during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, known for his advocacy of Christianity and modernization in Korea. His efforts were significant in promoting Western education and ideals, as he believed they were essential for Korea's progress and development. Yun's contributions helped bridge the gap between traditional Korean society and Western influences during a transformative period in Korean history.