10.2 The growth of research universities and graduate education
3 min read•august 7, 2024
revolutionized higher education in the late 19th century. Inspired by the German model, institutions like Johns Hopkins prioritized , , and , reshaping American academia.
Federal funding after World War II fueled rapid expansion of research programs and graduate education. This led to increased , new , and a culture of "" that continues to shape universities today.
Rise of Research Universities
German University Model and Johns Hopkins University
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- Research universities emerged in the late 19th century with a focus on original research and scholarship
- emphasized research, academic freedom, and graduate education which influenced American higher education
- , founded in 1876, was the first American university to adopt the German model and prioritize research
- Johns Hopkins established , , and a focus on scientific inquiry (biology, chemistry, physics)
Federal Funding for Research
- increased significantly after World War II with agencies like the and
- Government support enabled universities to expand research facilities, graduate programs, and faculty positions
- Federal research grants became a major source of funding for research universities and shaped institutional priorities
- Universities with strong research programs attracted top faculty, graduate students, and resources (, )
Development of Graduate Education
Expansion of Ph.D. Programs
- Graduate education expanded rapidly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the growth of research universities
- programs became the standard for advanced study and preparation for academic careers
- Ph.D. requirements included coursework, , original research, and a
- Number of Ph.D. degrees awarded increased from fewer than 100 per year in 1900 to over 8,000 by 1960 (history, economics, psychology)
Specialization and Academic Disciplines
- Graduate education led to increased specialization and the development of new academic disciplines
- Disciplines like , , and emerged as distinct fields of study
- Specialization allowed for deeper exploration of specific topics but also fragmented knowledge and created silos
- Academic departments became organized around specialized disciplines with their own faculty, courses, and research agendas (English literature, organic chemistry, developmental psychology)
Evolving Academic Culture
Elective System and Academic Freedom
- , championed by at Harvard, allowed students to choose courses based on their interests
- Elective system challenged the traditional classical curriculum and gave students more autonomy in their education
- Academic freedom, a key principle of the German university model, protected faculty's right to teach and research without interference
- Academic freedom fostered open inquiry, debate, and the pursuit of knowledge without fear of reprisal (controversial topics, unpopular opinions)
Tenure and Publish or Perish
- Academic , which provides job security for faculty after a probationary period, became widespread in the 20th century
- Tenure was designed to protect academic freedom and encourage long-term research projects
- Publish or perish refers to the pressure on faculty to regularly publish research in order to gain tenure and advance their careers
- Emphasis on research productivity led to a shift in faculty priorities away from teaching and service (quantity of publications, impact factors of journals)
- Tenure system has been criticized for creating a competitive and stressful academic culture that rewards individual achievement over collaboration and student learning (adjunct faculty, teaching evaluations)
Key Terms to Review (25)
Academic disciplines: Academic disciplines are branches of knowledge or fields of study that are characterized by their own unique methodologies, theories, and content areas. Each discipline encompasses a specific domain of knowledge that contributes to the broader landscape of education and research, often leading to specialized degrees and professional expertise. As higher education evolved, especially with the rise of research universities, these disciplines became more defined, facilitating focused study and advancements in various fields.
Academic freedom: Academic freedom is the principle that allows scholars and students to pursue knowledge and express ideas without fear of censorship or retaliation. This concept is fundamental in fostering an environment where research, teaching, and discussion can thrive, encouraging critical thinking and the exploration of diverse viewpoints. It is essential for the integrity and development of educational institutions, particularly as they evolved into centers for higher learning and research.
Anthropology: Anthropology is the study of humans, their societies, cultures, and development throughout history. It encompasses various fields, including cultural anthropology, which looks at social norms and practices, and physical anthropology, which focuses on human biological and evolutionary aspects. Understanding anthropology is crucial in examining how educational practices evolve in response to cultural changes and societal needs.
Charles Eliot: Charles Eliot was an influential American educator and reformer who served as the president of Harvard University from 1869 to 1909. His leadership marked a significant period in the evolution of higher education, particularly in the growth of research universities and graduate education, promoting the idea that universities should focus on both teaching and original research to advance knowledge.
Comprehensive exams: Comprehensive exams are assessments that evaluate a student's knowledge and understanding of their field of study, often covering a wide range of material accumulated throughout their coursework. These exams serve as a significant milestone in graduate education, marking the transition from coursework to research and dissertation work. Comprehensive exams are designed to test critical thinking, analytical skills, and mastery of the subject matter, which are essential for success in higher academic pursuits.
Dissertation: A dissertation is a lengthy, formal document that presents original research on a specific topic, usually submitted as part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. It serves as a culmination of a student's academic work and demonstrates their ability to conduct independent research, analyze data, and contribute new knowledge to their field of study.
Elective system: The elective system refers to an educational framework that allows students to choose specific courses or subjects based on their interests and career goals, rather than following a fixed curriculum. This system promotes personalized learning and flexibility, fostering a more engaging academic environment where students can explore various fields of study, especially within research universities and graduate education.
Federal funding for research: Federal funding for research refers to financial support provided by the government to academic institutions and researchers for the purpose of conducting scientific, technological, and scholarly investigations. This funding plays a crucial role in promoting innovation, advancing knowledge, and enhancing educational programs within research universities, which have increasingly become centers of advanced learning and research activities.
German University Model: The German University Model is an educational framework that emphasizes research, academic freedom, and the integration of teaching and scholarship, which emerged in Germany during the 19th century. This model paved the way for modern research universities, highlighting the importance of graduate education and specialized study within higher education institutions. It shifted the focus from classical education to a more practical approach that encourages innovative research and critical thinking.
Graduate education: Graduate education refers to advanced academic programs that follow the completion of a bachelor's degree, typically leading to a master's or doctoral degree. It focuses on specialized study and research in a specific field, often involving rigorous coursework, independent research, and the development of expertise that contributes to a particular discipline. This form of education is essential for the growth of research universities, which emphasize creating new knowledge through graduate-level research and scholarship.
Graduate programs: Graduate programs are advanced educational courses of study that lead to a master's or doctoral degree. These programs focus on specialized knowledge and research skills within a particular field, often requiring students to conduct independent research, complete a thesis or dissertation, and gain practical experience through internships or fellowships. As research universities have grown, so too has the emphasis on graduate education, fostering a new generation of scholars and professionals equipped to contribute to various fields.
Johns Hopkins University: Johns Hopkins University is a private research university located in Baltimore, Maryland, founded in 1876. It is recognized as the first research university in the United States and has played a pivotal role in the development of graduate education and research-focused programs in higher education.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a prestigious research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, founded in 1861. Known for its focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), MIT has played a pivotal role in shaping higher education and advancing industrial and technological knowledge, particularly during the 20th century.
National Institutes of Health (NIH): The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is a part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, responsible for biomedical and public health research. It plays a critical role in funding and conducting medical research, contributing significantly to advancements in healthcare and the development of research universities, which have become essential in graduate education in the medical and health sciences fields.
National Science Foundation (NSF): The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency established in 1950 that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. The NSF plays a crucial role in the growth of research universities and graduate education by providing grants, funding programs, and fostering collaborations that enhance scientific progress and innovation across the nation.
Original research: Original research refers to the process of conducting a study that generates new knowledge or insights, rather than simply summarizing existing information. This type of research is essential in academic settings as it drives innovation and advances understanding in various fields, particularly within research universities where graduate education is emphasized. The findings from original research can lead to new theories, methodologies, and applications that contribute significantly to the academic community and society as a whole.
Ph.D.: A Ph.D., or Doctor of Philosophy, is the highest academic degree awarded by universities, signifying the recipient's advanced research capabilities and expertise in a specific field of study. This degree plays a crucial role in the landscape of research universities and graduate education, as it embodies the rigorous intellectual training required to contribute original knowledge to academia and professional practice. Earning a Ph.D. typically involves years of coursework, comprehensive exams, and the completion of a dissertation that presents new findings to the scholarly community.
Political Science: Political science is the systematic study of political institutions, processes, behavior, and power structures within societies. It examines how governance works, the roles of various actors in politics, and the impacts of policies on individuals and communities. This field is crucial for understanding the development of research universities and graduate education as it helps shape the policies and frameworks that guide higher education systems.
Publish or perish: 'Publish or perish' is a phrase used in academia that emphasizes the pressure on researchers and academics to regularly publish their work in order to secure funding, promotions, and job stability. This culture has grown significantly alongside the rise of research universities and graduate education, where the quantity and quality of published research often serve as critical benchmarks for evaluating academic success. The expectation to produce published research can shape the focus of scholars, affecting their choice of topics, methodologies, and even collaborations within the academic community.
Research laboratories: Research laboratories are specialized facilities where scientific research and experimentation are conducted, providing the necessary environment and equipment for advanced studies. These laboratories are vital to the growth of research universities and graduate education, as they facilitate hands-on learning and innovation, allowing students and researchers to engage directly in their fields of study.
Research universities: Research universities are institutions of higher education that emphasize the creation and dissemination of knowledge through research, offering advanced degrees and fostering innovation. These universities play a crucial role in shaping graduate education by providing a platform for students to engage in cutting-edge research, which is vital for academic and professional advancement. The focus on research at these institutions leads to a unique blend of teaching and scholarship that influences various fields of study.
Sociology: Sociology is the study of social behavior, society, patterns of social relationships, and the institutions that govern social interactions. It focuses on understanding how individuals and groups relate to each other within various contexts, examining factors such as culture, norms, and institutions. This field plays a critical role in analyzing educational systems and their development, particularly in how research universities and graduate education shape societal structures and knowledge production.
Specialization: Specialization refers to the process of focusing on a specific area of study or profession to develop expertise and advanced knowledge. This concept is crucial in the context of education, particularly within research universities and graduate programs, as it allows students to concentrate their studies in particular fields, leading to deeper understanding and innovation in those areas.
Stanford University: Stanford University is a prestigious private research university located in Stanford, California, founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford. It has played a pivotal role in the development of higher education in the United States, particularly as a model for research universities that emphasize both academic excellence and innovative research.
Tenure: Tenure is a policy that provides job security for educators, particularly in higher education, after they have demonstrated a certain level of competence and achievement over a probationary period. This policy protects faculty from being dismissed without just cause, allowing them the freedom to teach and research controversial topics without fear of retribution. It plays a critical role in the academic environment, particularly as research universities expand and graduate education becomes more prevalent.