8.1 Suffrage movement
11 min read•august 21, 2024
The women's suffrage movement was a pivotal chapter in the fight for equality. Black women played a crucial role, facing both gender and racial discrimination. Their efforts highlighted the of oppression and the need for inclusive activism.
The movement's origins were intertwined with abolitionism, sparking early feminist conventions. Black women like and challenged racism within suffrage groups while advocating for both racial and gender equality. Their legacy shaped modern intersectional feminism.
Origins of women's suffrage
- Women's suffrage movement emerged as a crucial component of the broader struggle for women's rights and equality in the United States
- Black women played a significant role in shaping the suffrage movement, despite facing intersecting forms of oppression based on both gender and race
- The origins of women's suffrage were deeply intertwined with abolitionist movements and the fight for racial equality
Early feminist movements
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- First Wave Feminism focused on legal issues, particularly women's right to vote
- Abolitionist movement provided a platform for women to develop political consciousness and organizing skills
- Women's rights conventions held throughout the 1850s addressed issues such as property rights, education, and employment opportunities
- Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the (NWSA) in 1869
- Advocated for a federal constitutional amendment for women's suffrage
Seneca Falls Convention
- Held in July 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
- Produced the Declaration of Sentiments modeled after the Declaration of Independence
- Listed grievances and demanded equal rights for women, including the right to vote
- Frederick Douglass, a prominent Black abolitionist, attended and supported women's suffrage
- Marked the beginning of an organized women's rights movement in the United States
- Sparked a series of women's rights conventions across the country
Intersectionality vs white feminism
- Intersectionality recognizes the interconnected nature of social categorizations (race, class, gender)
- White feminism often prioritized the concerns of middle-class white women, neglecting issues faced by women of color
- Black women suffragists advocated for both racial and gender equality
- Faced discrimination within the suffrage movement and the broader society
- Anna Julia Cooper articulated the unique position of Black women in her 1892 book "A Voice from the South"
- Tensions arose between white and Black suffragists over prioritizing race or gender in the fight for voting rights
Black women in suffrage
- Black women played a crucial role in the suffrage movement, despite facing discrimination and exclusion from white-led suffrage organizations
- Their involvement in the suffrage movement was deeply connected to the broader struggle for civil rights and racial equality
- Black women's contributions to the suffrage movement have often been overlooked or minimized in historical narratives
Sojourner Truth's influence
- Born into slavery, Truth became a powerful orator and activist for both women's rights and abolition
- Delivered her famous "" speech at the 1851 Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio
- Challenged prevailing notions of femininity and highlighted the intersectionality of race and gender
- Traveled extensively, giving speeches that linked women's rights to racial equality and human rights
- Advocated for Black women's right to vote, recognizing the unique challenges they faced
- Her activism inspired future generations of Black women suffragists and civil rights leaders
Ida B. Wells-Barnett's activism
- Prominent journalist, anti-lynching crusader, and suffragist
- Co-founded the 's Clubs (NACWC) in 1896
- Organization focused on civil rights and women's suffrage
- Challenged racism within the suffrage movement
- Refused to march in segregated sections during suffrage parades
- Founded the in Chicago, the first Black women's suffrage organization in Illinois
- Wrote extensively on the importance of voting rights for Black women and men
- Attended the (NAWSA) convention in 1913, highlighting the need for inclusive suffrage
Mary Church Terrell's leadership
- First president of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW)
- Led efforts to promote women's suffrage and civil rights
- Emphasized the importance of education and political engagement for Black women
- Spoke at the International Congress of Women in Berlin in 1904
- Addressed issues of race and gender on an international stage
- Advocated for the inclusion of Black women in the broader suffrage movement
- Worked to bridge the gap between white and Black suffragists
- Continued her activism well into the civil rights era, participating in desegregation efforts in Washington, D.C.
Strategies and tactics
- Suffragists employed a variety of strategies to advance their cause and gain public support
- Black women suffragists often had to navigate both racial and gender discrimination in their activism
- The movement utilized both traditional political methods and more radical direct action approaches
Public speaking and lectures
- Suffragists organized speaking tours to educate the public about women's rights and suffrage
- Black women speakers addressed both white and Black audiences, often highlighting the intersectionality of their struggle
- Lectures focused on topics such as women's education, economic independence, and political participation
- Notable speakers included Frances Ellen Watkins Harper and Mary Ann Shadd Cary
- Combined suffrage advocacy with discussions of racial equality
- Speakers used personal stories and historical examples to make their case for women's suffrage
- Public debates between suffragists and anti-suffragists drew large crowds and media attention
Petitions and lobbying
- Suffragists collected millions of signatures on petitions demanding voting rights for women
- Black women's organizations, such as the National Association of Colored Women, organized their own petition drives
- Lobbying efforts targeted state legislatures and Congress to pass suffrage amendments
- Suffragists developed relationships with sympathetic politicians to advance their cause
- Letter-writing campaigns aimed to influence public opinion and pressure elected officials
- Black women suffragists lobbied for both women's suffrage and civil rights legislation
- Emphasized the importance of voting rights for full citizenship and equality
Protests and demonstrations
- Suffragists organized parades and marches to increase visibility and public support
- 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession in Washington, D.C. drew national attention
- Silent Sentinels picketed the White House from 1917 to 1919
- Held banners demanding voting rights and criticizing President Wilson's stance on suffrage
- Black women suffragists often faced segregation and discrimination within protest movements
- Ida B. Wells-Barnett refused to march in a segregated section of the 1913 suffrage parade
- Hunger strikes by imprisoned suffragists drew public sympathy and media coverage
- Some suffragists engaged in more militant tactics, such as property destruction and
- Black women's organizations held their own demonstrations and rallies to highlight their unique concerns
Opposition and challenges
- The women's suffrage movement faced significant opposition from various sources, including anti-suffragists, politicians, and social conservatives
- Black women suffragists encountered additional challenges due to racial discrimination and the complex intersection of gender and race in American society
- These obstacles required suffragists to develop strategies to overcome resistance and build broader coalitions
Racism within suffrage movement
- Many white suffragists prioritized gaining voting rights for white women over racial equality
- National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) often excluded or marginalized Black women
- Some leaders argued that including Black women would alienate Southern white supporters
- Black women were sometimes asked to march in segregated sections during suffrage parades
- Ida B. Wells-Barnett famously refused to do so in the 1913 Washington, D.C. parade
- Some white suffragists used racist arguments to promote women's suffrage
- Claimed that white women's votes would help maintain white supremacy
- Black women suffragists formed their own organizations in response to exclusion
- National Association of Colored Women (NACW) advocated for both suffrage and racial equality
Sexism in Black civil rights
- Some male Black leaders prioritized racial equality over gender equality
- Argued that women's suffrage would dilute the power of the Black male vote
- Black women faced pressure to choose between their racial and gender identities in political activism
- Frederick Douglass, while supportive of women's rights, argued for prioritizing Black male suffrage
- Led to tensions with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other white suffragists
- Black women suffragists had to navigate complex relationships within both suffrage and civil rights movements
- and others worked to bridge the gap between racial and gender equality movements
- Black male politicians sometimes overlooked the specific concerns of Black women voters
Southern resistance to reform
- Southern states strongly opposed women's suffrage, fearing it would threaten white supremacy
- and racial violence created additional barriers for Black women seeking voting rights
- White supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, actively opposed both women's suffrage and Black civil rights
- Southern politicians used states' rights arguments to resist federal suffrage amendments
- Some Southern suffragists promoted racist arguments for white women's suffrage
- Claimed it would help maintain white political dominance in the South
- Black women suffragists in the South faced extreme danger and violence for their activism
- Had to develop covert organizing strategies to avoid retaliation
Key legislation and amendments
- The struggle for women's suffrage and voting rights for Black Americans involved several key pieces of legislation and constitutional amendments
- These legal changes reflected the complex interplay between gender and racial equality in American politics
- Implementation and enforcement of these laws remained a challenge, particularly for Black women voters
15th Amendment controversy
- Ratified in 1870, prohibited denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude
- Created a rift in the women's suffrage movement
- Some suffragists, like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, opposed the amendment for not including women
- Others, including Lucy Stone, supported it as a step towards universal suffrage
- Black women suffragists, such as Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, supported the amendment
- Recognized its importance for Black men while continuing to advocate for women's suffrage
- Debate highlighted tensions between racial and gender equality movements
- Led to the formation of separate suffrage organizations with different strategies
- National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA)
19th Amendment passage
- Ratified in 1920, prohibited denial of voting rights on the basis of sex
- Represented the culmination of decades of suffrage activism and lobbying
- Black women suffragists, including Mary Church Terrell, actively campaigned for its passage
- Southern states strongly resisted ratification, fearing increased Black women's political participation
- Tennessee became the final state needed for ratification, passing by a single vote
- Implementation varied across states, with many continuing to disenfranchise Black voters
- Poll taxes, literacy tests, and other barriers remained in place
- Marked a significant victory for women's rights but did not fully address intersectional concerns
Voting Rights Act of 1965
- Landmark civil rights legislation that prohibited racial discrimination in voting
- Outlawed discriminatory voting practices such as literacy tests and poll taxes
- Provided federal oversight of election procedures in states with a history of discrimination
- Significantly increased Black voter registration and political participation
- Addressed many of the barriers that had prevented Black women from exercising their right to vote
- Section 5 required certain jurisdictions to obtain federal preclearance for changes to voting laws
- Faced ongoing challenges and attempts to weaken its provisions
- 2013 Supreme Court decision () struck down key parts of the Act
Post-suffrage era
- The passage of the did not immediately guarantee full voting rights for all women, particularly Black women
- Continued activism was necessary to address ongoing discrimination and
- The post-suffrage era saw a shift in focus towards broader civil rights and feminist issues
Continued disenfranchisement
- Many states, particularly in the South, maintained barriers to voting that disproportionately affected Black women
- Poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation tactics persisted
- Grandfather clauses and white primaries excluded Black voters from meaningful political participation
- Economic and social pressures often prevented Black women from exercising their newly won right to vote
- Voter registration drives faced violent opposition in many Southern states
- Legal challenges to discriminatory voting practices continued through the mid-20th century
- Black women's organizations, such as the , worked to increase voter registration and education
Civil rights movement connection
- Many Black women suffragists continued their activism in the broader civil rights movement
- Voting rights remained a central issue in the struggle for racial equality
- Black women played crucial roles in organizing and leading civil rights initiatives
- co-founded the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
- helped establish the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
- The Montgomery Bus Boycott, led by Rosa Parks and Jo Ann Robinson, highlighted the intersection of gender and racial discrimination
- Freedom Summer of 1964 focused on voter registration drives in the South
- Black women activists faced significant danger and violence
- March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963 included demands for voting rights
- played a key role in organizing the march
Modern voting rights issues
- Voter ID laws and restrictions on early voting disproportionately affect women of color
- Gerrymandering and redistricting often dilute the voting power of minority communities
- Felony disenfranchisement laws continue to impact Black women's voting rights
- Closure of polling places in predominantly Black neighborhoods creates barriers to voting
- Voter suppression tactics, such as purging voter rolls, remain a concern
- Digital disinformation campaigns target women and minority voters
- Ongoing debates over mail-in voting and election security measures
- Supreme Court decisions have weakened parts of the Voting Rights Act
- Shelby County v. Holder (2013) struck down key provisions
Legacy and impact
- The women's suffrage movement, particularly the contributions of Black women suffragists, has had a lasting impact on American politics and society
- The intersectional approach pioneered by Black women activists continues to influence modern social justice movements
- Ongoing challenges in voting rights and political representation highlight the enduring relevance of suffrage-era struggles
Black women's political participation
- Increased voter turnout among Black women since gaining suffrage
- Black women now vote at higher rates than any other demographic group
- Growth in Black women's representation in elected offices
- Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman elected to Congress in 1968
- Kamala Harris elected as the first woman and first Black and South Asian Vice President in 2020
- Formation of political organizations focused on Black women's issues
- Higher Heights for America advocates for Black women's leadership and political engagement
- Black women voters play a crucial role in Democratic Party politics
- Often referred to as the party's most loyal voting bloc
- Continued activism around voting rights and political representation
- Stacey Abrams' work in Georgia to combat voter suppression and increase turnout
Intersectional feminism development
- Concept of intersectionality, coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, built on the experiences of Black women suffragists
- Recognition of the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender
- Critique of "white feminism" that fails to address the specific concerns of women of color
- Emphasis on coalition-building across different marginalized groups
- Influence on academic fields such as Women's Studies and African American Studies
- Impact on policy discussions, addressing multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously
- Modern social justice movements, like Black Lives Matter, incorporate intersectional approaches
- Founded by three Black women: Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi
Ongoing fight for equality
- Continued efforts to protect and expand voting rights
- Advocacy for the John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act
- Push for representation in political leadership and decision-making roles
- Addressing economic inequalities that intersect with race and gender
- Campaigns for equal pay and workplace discrimination protections
- Focus on reproductive rights and healthcare access for women of color
- Combating violence against women, particularly women of color
- Movements like #SayHerName highlight violence against Black women
- Efforts to increase civic education and political engagement among young women of color
- Ongoing legal battles against voter suppression and discriminatory election laws
- Use of social media and digital platforms to organize and mobilize around equality issues
Key Terms to Review (26)
1913 women’s march: The 1913 women's march, also known as the Women's Suffrage Parade, was a significant demonstration held in Washington, D.C., on March 3, 1913, organized to advocate for women's right to vote. This event occurred on the eve of President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration and showcased the growing momentum of the suffrage movement, bringing together thousands of women from various backgrounds to demand equal voting rights.
19th amendment: The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote, marking a significant victory in the long struggle for women's suffrage. This amendment not only symbolized the culmination of decades of activism and advocacy but also highlighted the ongoing fight for equality and representation among various groups, including Black women, in electoral politics. Its passage represented both progress and the beginning of new challenges in the pursuit of true democracy.
Ain't I a Woman?: Ain't I a Woman? is a powerful phrase coined by Sojourner Truth during her famous speech at the Women's Rights Convention in 1851, emphasizing the intersection of race and gender. It challenges the dominant narratives of womanhood that often exclude Black women, asserting their strength, resilience, and humanity while confronting the societal expectations and limitations placed on them. This phrase connects deeply to issues of resistance, legal rights, and the leadership roles Black women have played in social movements.
Ain't I a woman?: The phrase 'ain't I a woman?' is a powerful rhetorical question famously articulated by Sojourner Truth in her speech delivered at the Women's Rights Convention in 1851. This question serves to challenge societal norms and stereotypes about gender and race, highlighting the intersectionality of women's rights and the experiences of Black women during the suffrage movement. It underscores the unique struggles faced by Black women, who were often marginalized even within the broader feminist movement.
Alpha Suffrage Club: The Alpha Suffrage Club was one of the first organizations founded by Black women in the United States to advocate for women's suffrage. Established in 1913 in Chicago, it aimed to unite Black women and support their fight for the right to vote, emphasizing the importance of inclusion in the broader suffrage movement. The club played a significant role in both local and national efforts to achieve voting rights for women, focusing on the unique challenges faced by African American women.
Black women's suffrage association: The black women's suffrage association was a collective of African American women advocating for the right to vote, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These organizations played a crucial role in highlighting the unique struggles faced by Black women in the broader suffrage movement, emphasizing both racial and gender equality. They worked tirelessly to challenge racial discrimination while pushing for women's rights, often intersecting with civil rights activism.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws or commands of a government, as a form of protest against unjust policies. This concept is rooted in the belief that individuals have the moral duty to resist laws that perpetuate injustice, often leading to social and political change. It has been utilized throughout history by various movements to challenge systemic oppression and advocate for civil rights.
Disenfranchisement: Disenfranchisement refers to the systematic removal of individuals' or groups' right to vote, often targeting marginalized populations. This practice has historically been used to suppress the political power of certain communities, particularly African Americans and women, through various means such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation. The fight against disenfranchisement is a central theme in the struggle for suffrage and civil rights, highlighting the ongoing battle for equal representation.
Dorothy Height: Dorothy Height was a prominent civil rights and women's rights activist whose work significantly impacted the political landscape in America. She served as the president of the National Council of Negro Women for over 40 years and was a key figure in advocating for both racial and gender equality, making substantial contributions to movements related to suffrage, civil rights, and political participation.
Double Jeopardy: Double jeopardy is a legal concept that protects individuals from being tried for the same crime more than once after they have been acquitted or convicted. This principle is important in understanding how systemic discrimination and intersecting identities can lead to compounded oppression and marginalization, particularly for Black women who face multiple layers of discrimination in society.
Ella Baker: Ella Baker was a prominent civil rights activist and leader, known for her grassroots organizing and advocacy for racial and social justice, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s. Her work emphasized the importance of collective action and community empowerment, which connected her to various movements advocating for political participation, voting rights, and the liberation of Black women.
Fannie Lou Hamer: Fannie Lou Hamer was a civil rights activist and a leader in the struggle for voting rights and racial equality for African Americans, known for her powerful speeches and grassroots organizing. Her work not only brought attention to the injustices faced by Black Americans in the South but also highlighted the intersectionality of race, gender, and class within the civil rights movement.
Grassroots organizing: Grassroots organizing refers to a community-driven approach where individuals come together at the local level to advocate for social change and influence political decisions. This type of organizing often emphasizes participation, mobilization, and the development of leaders from within the community, making it a powerful tool for addressing issues that affect marginalized groups. It plays a vital role in movements aiming for equality and justice, as it fosters collective action and empowers voices that are often overlooked.
Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a prominent African American journalist, educator, and civil rights activist known for her courageous work against lynching in the United States. She played a significant role in advocating for political participation among Black Americans, addressing segregation, and founding organizations that aimed to uplift Black women and their communities, all while striving for women's suffrage.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various forms of social identities—such as race, gender, class, and sexuality—intersect and create overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage. This concept is crucial for analyzing the unique experiences of individuals who belong to multiple marginalized groups, highlighting how societal structures impact them differently compared to those who may only experience one form of oppression.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, enforcing racial segregation and disenfranchising Black Americans. These laws institutionalized a system of oppression that stemmed from post-Reconstruction efforts to maintain white supremacy and control over African Americans, impacting various aspects of life including education, public facilities, and economic opportunities.
Mary Church Terrell: Mary Church Terrell was a prominent African American educator, activist, and suffragist, known for her pioneering efforts in advocating for civil rights and women's rights in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She played a crucial role in addressing racial violence, segregation, and discrimination while also emphasizing the importance of political participation for Black women.
National American Woman Suffrage Association: The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was a key organization in the women's suffrage movement, formed in 1890 to advocate for women's right to vote. It aimed to unite various women's suffrage organizations and played a crucial role in the campaign for women's voting rights at both state and federal levels, emphasizing a peaceful and legal approach to securing suffrage.
National Association of Colored Women: The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was established in 1896 as a federation of various black women's clubs across the United States, aimed at improving social conditions and advocating for civil rights. This organization played a vital role in promoting activism among black women, addressing issues such as education, health, and suffrage while fostering a sense of community and collective identity.
National Council of Negro Women: The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) is an organization founded in 1935 that aimed to unify the efforts of various Black women's groups and promote their rights and welfare. This organization plays a crucial role in advocating for social justice, economic empowerment, and political participation for African American women.
National Woman Suffrage Association: The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was an organization founded in 1869 by leaders such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, aiming to secure women's right to vote in the United States. The NWSA focused on a federal approach to women's suffrage and was pivotal in advocating for constitutional amendments that would grant women voting rights, highlighting the intersection of women's rights and civil rights during a time of social reform.
Shelby County v. Holder: Shelby County v. Holder is a landmark Supreme Court case from 2013 that invalidated key provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, specifically targeting the formula used to determine which jurisdictions were required to seek federal approval before making changes to their voting laws. This decision significantly weakened federal oversight of state voting laws, raising concerns about voter suppression and discrimination, especially among historically marginalized communities.
Sojourner Truth: Sojourner Truth was an African American abolitionist and women's rights activist who is best known for her speech, 'Ain't I a Woman?', delivered in 1851. Her life and work highlighted the interconnected struggles against slavery, racial injustice, and gender inequality during a transformative era in American history.
The African American Woman: A History: The African American Woman: A History refers to the collective experiences, contributions, and struggles of African American women throughout American history. This narrative encompasses their roles in slavery, activism, education, and cultural expression, highlighting how these women have shaped and transformed society despite facing systemic racism and gender discrimination. The histories of African American women are intertwined with broader social movements, particularly in advocating for civil rights and suffrage.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of federal legislation that aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting, particularly in the Southern United States. This act was a crucial achievement of the civil rights movement and addressed the systemic barriers that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote, connecting deeply with the suffrage movement, various civil rights organizations, and significant protests like sit-ins and marches for equality.
What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?: This powerful phrase comes from a speech delivered by Frederick Douglass on July 5, 1852, where he eloquently questioned the meaning of American independence and freedom for enslaved people. Douglass's address emphasized the stark contrast between the celebration of liberty on Independence Day and the ongoing oppression faced by African Americans, highlighting the hypocrisy of a nation that proclaimed freedom while simultaneously enslaving millions. The speech calls into question the true nature of freedom and justice in America, making it a critical reflection on the injustices faced by Black individuals during that period.