❤️‍🔥Heat and Mass Transfer Unit 4 – Radiation Heat Transfer

Fundamentals of Radiation Heat Transfer

• Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves
• Occurs between surfaces at different temperatures without requiring a medium for transmission
• Governed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which relates the total radiant heat power emitted by a surface to its absolute temperature
  • Expressed as $Q = \sigma A T^4$, where $\sigma$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ($5.67 \times 10^{-8}$ W/m²·K⁴)
• Radiation heat transfer is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature difference between surfaces
• Depends on surface properties such as emissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity
  • Emissivity ($\varepsilon$) is the ratio of the radiation emitted by a surface to that emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature
• Radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted by a surface
• Plays a significant role in high-temperature applications (furnaces, solar energy systems)

Blackbody Radiation and Emissivity

• A blackbody is an ideal surface that absorbs all incident radiation and emits the maximum amount of energy at a given temperature
• Blackbody radiation follows Planck's law, which describes the spectral distribution of emitted radiation as a function of wavelength and temperature
• The total emissive power of a blackbody is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, $E_b = \sigma T^4$
• Real surfaces emit less radiation than a blackbody at the same temperature, characterized by their emissivity ($\varepsilon$)
  • Emissivity values range from 0 to 1, with 1 representing a perfect blackbody
• Kirchhoff's law states that, at thermal equilibrium, the emissivity of a surface equals its absorptivity ($\alpha$) at a given wavelength and temperature
• The spectral emissivity of a surface varies with wavelength, while the total hemispherical emissivity is an average value over all wavelengths
• Emissivity depends on factors such as material composition, surface finish, and temperature
  • Polished metals generally have low emissivities, while rough and oxidized surfaces have higher emissivities

View Factors and Geometric Effects

• View factors (also known as shape factors or configuration factors) quantify the geometric relationship between surfaces exchanging radiation
• The view factor $F_{1-2}$ represents the fraction of radiation leaving surface 1 that is intercepted by surface 2
  • Calculated using the integral $F_{1-2} = \frac{1}{A_1} \int_{A_1} \int_{A_2} \frac{\cos \theta_1 \cos \theta_2}{\pi r^2} dA_2 dA_1$
• View factors depend on the size, shape, and orientation of the surfaces involved
• The reciprocity relation states that $A_1 F_{1-2} = A_2 F_{2-1}$, where $A_1$ and $A_2$ are the areas of surfaces 1 and 2, respectively
• The summation rule requires that the sum of all view factors from a surface to its surroundings equals 1
• Tabulated view factors are available for common geometric configurations (parallel plates, perpendicular plates, concentric cylinders)
• The crossed-strings method and the unit-sphere method are techniques for determining view factors in more complex geometries
• Radiation shields and baffles can be used to modify view factors and control radiation exchange between surfaces

Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

• Radiation exchange between surfaces involves the net transfer of energy due to emission, absorption, and reflection
• The net radiation heat transfer between two surfaces is given by $Q_{1-2} = A_1 F_{1-2} \sigma (T_1^4 - T_2^4)$, assuming diffuse, gray surfaces
• For multiple surfaces, the radiosity method is used to determine the net radiation exchange
  • Radiosity ($J$) is the total radiation leaving a surface, including emitted and reflected radiation
  • The radiosity method involves solving a system of equations relating the radiosities, emissivities, and temperatures of the surfaces
• The net radiation method is an alternative approach that directly considers the net radiation heat transfer between pairs of surfaces
• Radiation exchange in enclosures can be analyzed using the enclosure theory, which accounts for multiple reflections and the conservation of energy
• The presence of participating media (gases, particles) can affect radiation exchange by absorbing, emitting, and scattering radiation
• Kirchhoff's law and the reciprocity relation are used to simplify radiation exchange calculations in certain cases

Radiation Shields and Insulation

• Radiation shields are thin, reflective surfaces used to reduce radiation heat transfer between two surfaces
• Shields work by reflecting a portion of the incident radiation back to the source, reducing the net radiation exchange
• The effectiveness of a radiation shield depends on its emissivity, reflectivity, and the number of shields used
  • Low-emissivity materials (polished metals) make effective radiation shields
• Multiple radiation shields can be used to further reduce heat transfer, with each additional shield providing diminishing returns
• Evacuated spaces between shields minimize conduction and convection losses, enhancing the shield's performance
• Radiation shields are commonly used in cryogenic storage tanks, spacecraft insulation, and high-temperature furnaces
• Insulation materials with low thermal conductivity and high reflectivity can also be used to reduce radiation heat transfer
  • Examples include multilayer insulation (MLI) and aerogel blankets
• The effectiveness of insulation depends on its thickness, thermal conductivity, and the temperature gradient across it
• Proper installation and maintenance of radiation shields and insulation are crucial for optimal performance

Radiation in Participating Media

• Participating media, such as gases and particles, can absorb, emit, and scatter radiation as it passes through them
• Absorption occurs when radiation is converted into internal energy of the medium, while emission is the release of energy as radiation
• Scattering involves the redirection of radiation by particles or molecules in the medium
  • Scattering can be classified as forward scattering (in the direction of the incident radiation) or backward scattering (in the opposite direction)
• The radiative transfer equation (RTE) describes the change in radiation intensity as it travels through a participating medium
  • The RTE accounts for absorption, emission, and scattering effects
• The absorption and scattering coefficients quantify the extent to which a medium absorbs or scatters radiation per unit path length
• The optical thickness ($\tau$) is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the attenuation of radiation in a participating medium
  • Optically thin media ($\tau \ll 1$) have little effect on radiation, while optically thick media ($\tau \gg 1$) significantly attenuate radiation
• Participating media can have a significant impact on radiation heat transfer in applications such as combustion chambers, atmospheric modeling, and solar receivers
• Numerical methods, such as the discrete ordinates method (DOM) and the Monte Carlo method, are used to solve the RTE and analyze radiation in participating media

Applications and Real-World Examples

• Solar energy systems: Radiation is the primary mode of heat transfer in solar collectors, concentrators, and photovoltaic panels
  • Selective surfaces with high absorptivity in the solar spectrum and low emissivity in the infrared are used to maximize solar energy absorption
• Thermal insulation: Radiation shields and insulation materials are used to minimize heat loss in buildings, refrigeration systems, and industrial processes
  • Examples include reflective foils, ceramic coatings, and aerogel blankets
• Furnaces and high-temperature processes: Radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer at high temperatures, such as in glass melting furnaces and steel production
  • Refractory materials with high emissivity are used to enhance radiative heat transfer and improve efficiency
• Spacecraft thermal control: Radiation is the only means of heat transfer in the vacuum of space
  • Spacecraft use reflective coatings, multilayer insulation, and heat pipes to manage temperature and protect sensitive components
• Greenhouse effect: Atmospheric gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide) absorb and emit infrared radiation, trapping heat near the Earth's surface
  • Understanding radiative transfer in the atmosphere is crucial for climate modeling and predicting global temperature changes
• Radiative cooling: Surfaces can be designed to emit radiation in the atmospheric window (8-13 μm) to achieve cooling below ambient temperature
  • Applications include passive cooling of buildings and electronic devices
• Thermal radiation in manufacturing: Radiation heat transfer is used in processes such as drying, curing, and heat treatment of materials
  • Infrared lamps and radiant heaters provide targeted heating without the need for convection or conduction

Problem-Solving Techniques

• Identify the mode of radiation heat transfer (surface-to-surface, surface-to-medium, or medium-to-medium) and the relevant properties (emissivity, absorptivity, reflectivity)
• Determine the geometry and configuration of the surfaces involved, and calculate view factors using tabulated values, the reciprocity relation, or numerical methods
• Apply the appropriate radiation heat transfer equations, such as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the net radiation exchange equation, or the radiosity method
  • For surface-to-surface problems, use $Q_{1-2} = A_1 F_{1-2} \sigma (T_1^4 - T_2^4)$ for diffuse, gray surfaces
  • For enclosures, set up a system of equations relating the radiosities, emissivities, and temperatures of the surfaces, and solve for the unknown quantities
• Consider the effect of participating media, if present, and use the radiative transfer equation (RTE) to account for absorption, emission, and scattering
  • Determine the absorption and scattering coefficients, and calculate the optical thickness of the medium
• Simplify the problem by making appropriate assumptions, such as diffuse and gray surfaces, non-participating media, or one-dimensional radiation transfer
• Use numerical methods, such as the finite difference method or the Monte Carlo method, to solve complex radiation problems involving participating media or irregular geometries
• Verify the results by checking the units, performing energy balance calculations, and comparing with known solutions or experimental data
• Iterate and refine the solution, if necessary, by adjusting the assumptions, using more accurate property values, or increasing the resolution of numerical methods