10.3 Neoclassical tragedy
7 min read•august 21, 2024
emerged in 17th century France, reviving classical Greek forms. It aimed to create logical, morally instructive dramas adhering to strict rules like the three unities and . This movement shaped European theater for centuries.
Key figures like Corneille, Racine, and developed the genre, focusing on noble characters and moral dilemmas. Neoclassical tragedy emphasized formal language, , and themes of duty and honor, leaving a lasting impact on dramatic traditions.
Origins of neoclassical tragedy
- Emerged in 17th century France as a revival and adaptation of classical Greek tragic forms
- Sought to emulate the perceived perfection and moral purpose of ancient tragedies
- Developed as part of broader neoclassical movement in arts and literature
Influence of Greek tragedy
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- Drew inspiration from works of Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus
- Adopted focus on noble characters and elevated themes
- Incorporated concept of to evoke emotional purification in audience
Renaissance rediscovery
- Humanist scholars translated and circulated ancient Greek texts
- Renewed interest in classical learning sparked reexamination of dramatic forms
- Italian critics like Lodovico Castelvetro interpreted Aristotle's Poetics
French neoclassical movement
- Developed under patronage of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV
- Académie Française established to codify French language and literature
- Theorists like François Hédelin and Nicolas Boileau formulated neoclassical rules
Key principles
- Aimed to create logical, orderly, and morally instructive dramatic works
- Emphasized adherence to strict formal rules and conventions
- Sought to achieve balance between artistic expression and rational structure
Three unities
- focused plot on single, central conflict
- limited events to 24-hour period
- restricted action to single physical location
- Intended to create sense of realism and maintain audience focus
Decorum and propriety
- Characters behaved according to their social status and moral nature
- Avoided depiction of violence or unseemly actions on stage
- Maintained clear separation between comic and tragic elements
Verisimilitude
- Strived for plausible and believable representation of events
- Excluded supernatural elements and deus ex machina plot devices
- Aimed to create emotional connection between audience and characters
Structure and form
- Adhered to rigid structural conventions to create sense of order and balance
- Emphasized symmetry and proportion in dramatic composition
- Sought to achieve clarity and coherence in storytelling
Five-act structure
- Exposition introduced characters and conflict
- Rising action developed tensions and complications
- Climax presented turning point or moment of highest tension
- Falling action showed consequences of climax
- Denouement resolved conflicts and provided closure
Alexandrine verse
- Utilized 12-syllable lines with caesura after sixth syllable
- Employed rhyming couplets throughout dialogue
- Created sense of elevated, formal language appropriate for noble characters
Chorus vs no chorus
- Eliminated traditional Greek chorus in favor of confidant characters
- Retained some choral functions through soliloquies and asides
- Allowed for more focused character development and psychological exploration
Themes and subject matter
- Explored universal human conflicts and moral dilemmas
- Drew inspiration from classical mythology and historical events
- Emphasized themes of duty, honor, and sacrifice
Historical and mythological sources
- Adapted stories from Greek and Roman history (Horace)
- Reimagined classical myths for contemporary audiences (Phaedra)
- Explored biblical narratives and figures (Esther)
Moral dilemmas
- Presented characters torn between conflicting obligations
- Examined tension between personal desires and societal expectations
- Explored consequences of ethical choices and moral failings
Fate vs free will
- Questioned extent of human agency in determining one's destiny
- Explored role of divine intervention in human affairs
- Examined interplay between character flaws and external circumstances
Notable playwrights
- Developed and refined neoclassical tragic form over course of 17th and 18th centuries
- Each brought unique style and thematic focus to their works
- Influenced subsequent generations of dramatists across Europe
Pierre Corneille
- Known as "father of French tragedy"
- Wrote , controversial play that sparked debate over neoclassical rules
- Explored themes of duty, honor, and political power in works like Horace and Cinna
Jean Racine
- Considered master of French classical tragedy
- Focused on psychological complexity and inner turmoil of characters
- Wrote , often regarded as pinnacle of neoclassical tragedy
Voltaire
- Brought Enlightenment ideals to neoclassical tragic form
- Incorporated social and political commentary into historical dramas
- Wrote Zaïre, exploring religious conflict and tolerance
Characterization
- Focused on noble, elevated characters facing extraordinary circumstances
- Emphasized internal struggles and moral dilemmas
- Developed complex psychological portraits within constraints of neoclassical form
Noble protagonists
- Centered plots around royalty, mythological heroes, or historical figures
- Portrayed characters with heightened sense of duty and moral responsibility
- Explored fall of great individuals due to tragic flaws or circumstances
Psychological complexity
- Delved into characters' inner thoughts and motivations
- Explored nuanced emotional states and conflicting desires
- Developed characters' internal struggles through soliloquies and confidant interactions
Stock characters
- Utilized recurring character types to support main protagonists
- Included confidants, rivals, and messengers to advance plot and provide exposition
- Adapted traditional Greek chorus functions to individual characters
Language and style
- Employed formal, elevated language to reflect noble status of characters
- Utilized poetic devices to create sense of artifice and heightened reality
- Balanced need for clarity with desire for artistic expression
Elevated diction
- Used sophisticated vocabulary and complex sentence structures
- Avoided colloquialisms or vulgar expressions
- Maintained consistent tone appropriate to tragic subject matter
Rhetorical devices
- Incorporated apostrophe, hyperbole, and antithesis
- Utilized metaphors and similes to convey abstract concepts
- Employed parallelism and repetition for emphasis and rhythm
Poetic vs prosaic dialogue
- Composed majority of dialogue in verse form (Alexandrine)
- Reserved prose for lower-class characters or comic relief
- Balanced poetic expression with need for natural-sounding dialogue
Staging and performance
- Adhered to conventions of 17th and 18th-century French theater
- Emphasized declamatory style of acting and formal staging
- Sought to create sense of grandeur and elevated reality on stage
Minimalist set design
- Utilized single, fixed set representing generic palace or public square
- Relied on audience imagination to fill in details of setting
- Used symbolic props and elements to suggest time and place
Acting conventions
- Emphasized clear diction and precise gestures
- Utilized stylized poses and movements to convey emotion
- Focused on declamatory delivery of verse dialogue
Costume and makeup
- Dressed characters in contemporary 17th/18th-century court attire
- Used costume to indicate social status and character type
- Employed minimal makeup to enhance facial expressions
Critical reception
- Initially celebrated as pinnacle of dramatic achievement
- Later criticized for rigid adherence to rules and lack of innovation
- Continues to be studied and debated in context of theatrical history
Contemporary acclaim
- Praised by French critics for adherence to classical ideals
- Celebrated as reflection of rationalist Enlightenment values
- Viewed as superior to more "barbaric" forms of drama (Shakespeare)
Later criticisms
- Romantic-era critics rejected perceived artificiality and constraints
- Modernist playwrights sought to break free from neoclassical conventions
- Postcolonial scholars critiqued Eurocentric focus and elitist nature
Influence on European drama
- Spread to other European countries through translation and adaptation
- Inspired development of national dramatic traditions (German, Italian)
- Continued to influence theatrical practices well into 19th century
Neoclassical vs ancient tragedy
- Adapted classical forms to suit contemporary tastes and values
- Reflected shift from communal to individual focus in dramatic representation
- Incorporated Enlightenment ideals of reason and
Structural differences
- Eliminated chorus in favor of individual characters
- Extended length of plays beyond single day of Greek tragedy
- Developed more complex plot structures and subplots
Thematic shifts
- Focused more on individual psychology and moral choices
- Reduced emphasis on fate and divine intervention
- Incorporated contemporary political and social themes
Cultural context
- Reflected absolutist monarchies of 17th/18th-century Europe
- Emphasized rationalism and order of Enlightenment thought
- Catered to aristocratic audiences and court culture
Legacy and influence
- Shaped development of European drama for over two centuries
- Continues to be performed and studied in academic settings
- Influences modern playwrights through reaction and reinterpretation
Impact on Enlightenment thought
- Reinforced ideals of reason, order, and moral instruction
- Provided forum for exploration of political and philosophical ideas
- Contributed to development of literary criticism and dramatic theory
Decline of neoclassicism
- Romantic movement rejected rigid rules and conventions
- Rise of realism and naturalism in 19th century
- Avant-garde experimentation in 20th century
Modern adaptations
- Contemporary playwrights reinterpret neoclassical works (Anouilh's Antigone)
- Film and television adaptations bring neoclassical themes to new audiences
- Postmodern theater engages with and subverts neoclassical conventions
Key Terms to Review (25)
Alexandrine verse: Alexandrine verse is a type of poetic meter that consists of lines with twelve syllables, traditionally divided into two hemistichs of six syllables each. This form was notably used in French classical poetry and is closely associated with the neoclassical tragedy, as it reflects a balance of rhythm and structure that was highly valued in this literary movement. The alexandrine allows for a rich exploration of themes through its formal constraints, providing a musical quality that enhances the emotional impact of the text.
Catharsis: Catharsis is the emotional release experienced by the audience of a tragedy, leading to a sense of purification or renewal. This concept is central to Greek tragedy, as it allows the audience to experience intense feelings of pity and fear, which are ultimately resolved, leaving them with a sense of emotional relief. It connects to various elements of tragic narratives, including character development and plot structure, as well as the overall impact of the theatrical experience.
Decorum: Decorum refers to the appropriateness of behavior, speech, and actions in a given context, especially within the realm of art and literature. It emphasizes the need for characters to behave in a manner consistent with their social status and the overall tone of the work, ensuring a level of dignity and respect is maintained throughout. In this framework, decorum plays a vital role in how the audience perceives both the characters and the narrative.
Dramatic Irony: Dramatic irony is a literary device where the audience knows more about a situation than the characters in the story, creating tension and engagement. This device often highlights the contrast between appearance and reality, adding depth to character motivations and plot development.
Emotional engagement: Emotional engagement refers to the connection and response that an audience experiences when they encounter a narrative or performance. This engagement is crucial in art forms, as it fosters empathy and understanding, allowing individuals to relate to the characters and themes on a deeper level. In storytelling and drama, this connection can be intensified through elements like character development, relatable conflicts, and the evocation of strong feelings.
Fate vs free will: Fate vs free will refers to the philosophical debate over whether our actions are determined by external forces or if we have the autonomy to make our own choices. This tension is central to many narratives, particularly in Greek tragedy, where characters often struggle against their destinies while simultaneously making choices that lead to their downfall. The interplay between fate and free will raises questions about human responsibility, morality, and the nature of existence, ultimately illustrating how characters navigate their predicaments.
Five-act structure: The five-act structure is a dramatic framework that organizes a play into five distinct sections, typically including exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. This structure helps to build tension and develop the plot and characters in a coherent way, ensuring that the audience is engaged throughout the performance. It became particularly prominent in Roman tragedy and was later refined during the Neoclassical period, influencing the way stories were told on stage.
French Classicism: French Classicism is an artistic and literary movement that emerged in France during the 17th century, characterized by a focus on order, harmony, clarity, and adherence to established rules and principles. This movement sought to emulate the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing reason and restraint in the creation of works, particularly in drama, which often included elements of tragedy and comedy.
Jean Racine: Jean Racine was a prominent French playwright of the 17th century, known for his mastery of tragedy and his significant contributions to Neoclassical drama. His works are characterized by emotional intensity, poetic language, and adherence to the principles of unity in time, place, and action, which were central to the Neoclassical movement. Racine's plays often explore themes of love, fate, and moral conflict, reflecting the complexities of human emotions.
Le Cid: Le Cid is a tragic play written by Pierre Corneille, first performed in 1637, that blends themes of honor, love, and conflict. The play follows the story of Rodrigue and Chimène, who are caught in a moral dilemma between their love for each other and their familial obligations to seek revenge. Le Cid exemplifies the principles of Neoclassical tragedy, showcasing the strict adherence to the unities of time, place, and action while exploring the complexities of human emotions and social codes.
Moral instruction: Moral instruction refers to the teaching of ethical principles and values through storytelling and dramatic representation. It serves as a tool for conveying lessons about right and wrong, often using characters and plots to illustrate moral dilemmas and their resolutions. In the context of Neoclassical tragedy, moral instruction played a critical role, as playwrights aimed to both entertain and educate audiences, guiding them towards virtuous behavior while reflecting societal values.
Neoclassical tragedy: Neoclassical tragedy is a form of drama that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, characterized by its adherence to classical ideals from ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing order, reason, and adherence to established rules. This genre often focuses on the noble hero facing moral dilemmas and significant conflict, showcasing themes of fate, justice, and the human condition while aligning with the unities of time, place, and action.
Noble protagonists: Noble protagonists are central characters in tragic narratives who typically come from high social standing or noble birth, embodying qualities like virtue, honor, and moral integrity. Their elevated status makes their eventual downfall or suffering more poignant and impactful, often highlighting themes of fate, human flaws, and the consequences of choices within the story.
Phèdre: Phèdre is a character from classical tragedy, most famously depicted in the works of playwrights like Euripides and Racine, representing intense human emotions such as love, desire, and guilt. This character often embodies the themes of forbidden love and tragic downfall, reflecting the moral and philosophical concerns prominent in neoclassical tragedy, where fate and personal flaws lead to inevitable suffering.
Pierre Corneille: Pierre Corneille was a French playwright in the 17th century, widely regarded as one of the founding figures of French Neoclassical tragedy. He is best known for his plays that explore themes of honor, love, and conflict, often featuring complex characters facing moral dilemmas. His works laid the groundwork for the rules and conventions of Neoclassical drama, influencing not only his contemporaries but also future generations of playwrights.
Prologue: In Greek tragedy, a prologue is the opening segment of a play that provides essential background information and sets the stage for the unfolding drama. This introductory part often includes the exposition of the main themes, characters, and conflicts, allowing the audience to grasp the context before the action begins.
Psychological complexity: Psychological complexity refers to the depth and intricacy of characters' thoughts, emotions, and motivations, creating a multi-dimensional portrayal that resonates with the audience. In Neoclassical tragedy, this concept is crucial, as it enhances the moral and ethical dilemmas faced by characters, reflecting the human condition in a profound way. The exploration of internal conflicts and the interplay between reason and emotion in these tragedies showcases how psychological factors influence human behavior.
Stock characters: Stock characters are stereotypical figures that represent specific traits and roles within a narrative, often serving as recognizable archetypes in storytelling. These characters are typically one-dimensional and easily identifiable, making them effective for conveying themes and advancing the plot without the need for extensive development. In the context of Neoclassical tragedy, stock characters fulfill essential roles such as the tragic hero, the villain, and the confidant, each embodying familiar traits that resonate with the audience.
The Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in Europe during the late 17th and 18th centuries, characterized by an emphasis on reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. This movement promoted ideas such as liberty, equality, and the scientific method, which significantly influenced various cultural expressions, including Neoclassical tragedy, by challenging established norms and encouraging a more rational approach to understanding human nature and society.
Tragic hero: A tragic hero is a character in a dramatic work who possesses noble qualities but ultimately faces downfall due to a tragic flaw or fate. This concept is vital in understanding how characters evoke pity and fear, as their struggles often highlight profound human experiences and moral dilemmas.
Unity of Action: Unity of action is a principle in drama that emphasizes the importance of a single, cohesive plot or storyline throughout a play. This concept suggests that all events and actions within the narrative should contribute to the central theme or main conflict, avoiding unnecessary subplots or distractions. By focusing on one primary storyline, unity of action aims to create a more impactful and engaging experience for the audience, ensuring clarity and emotional resonance.
Unity of Place: Unity of Place is a dramatic principle that dictates that a play should occur in a single physical location, ensuring that the action unfolds within a specific setting without shifting to other places. This concept aims to create a sense of realism and immediacy, allowing audiences to immerse themselves in the narrative without distractions from multiple settings. It is closely associated with classical Greek drama, Neoclassical rules, and the early development of theatrical performances.
Unity of time: Unity of time is a principle in classical drama that dictates that a play should take place within a single day, ensuring that the events unfold in real-time or closely mimic the natural progression of time. This concept is part of a broader framework known as the Three Unities, which emphasizes a cohesive and concentrated narrative structure, enhancing the emotional impact and clarity of the story.
Verisimilitude: Verisimilitude refers to the appearance of being true or real in artistic representation, often achieved through realism and the careful construction of believable characters and events. In dramatic works, especially in Neoclassical tragedy, it plays a critical role by grounding the narrative in relatable human experiences and moral dilemmas, ensuring that audiences can connect with the story and its themes on a deeper level.
Voltaire: Voltaire was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher known for his wit, advocacy for civil liberties, and criticism of religious dogma and intolerance. His works laid the groundwork for modern secular thought and influenced neoclassical tragedy through their emphasis on reason, moral integrity, and the questioning of authority.