7.2 Third gender categories and roles in ancient civilizations
3 min read•august 15, 2024
Ancient civilizations recognized diverse third gender categories beyond male and female. These identities often held spiritual significance and unique social roles, challenging our modern binary understanding of gender.
From Mesopotamian priests to Native American two-spirits, third gender individuals played important religious and cultural roles. Their acceptance varied across societies, offering insights into the complex history of gender diversity.
Third Gender Categories in Ancient Civilizations
Defining Third Gender Categories
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- Third gender refers to a gender category or identity distinct from the binary male/female categories
- Ancient civilizations recognized a variety of third gender identities that encompassed individuals not fully conforming to male or female roles
- Third gender categories were often associated with spiritual or religious significance in ancient cultures
Examples of Third Gender Categories
- In ancient , the , , and were third gender or transgender priests who took on feminine names, clothing, and traits
- They served in temples and participated in religious rituals
- In ancient Egypt, the were a third gender category of men who adopted feminine dress, names, and roles
- They were connected with the goddess Hathor
- Indian Vedic texts describe the , a "third nature" category encompassing individuals not fully male or female, such as the hijras
- Hijras dressed as women and served ritual and entertainment functions
- Native American cultures recognized "" people who combined male and female characteristics
- Two-spirit individuals often held spiritual or shamanic roles in their communities
Social Roles of Third Gender Individuals
Spiritual and Religious Roles
- Third gender individuals in ancient civilizations frequently held spiritual or religious roles, such as priests, , or temple functionaries
- Their gender identity was seen as a sign of divine connection
- In Mesopotamia, the assinnu, kurgarrū, and kulu'u performed in religious ceremonies, dances, and rituals
- They were associated with the worship of Inanna/Ishtar
- Indian hijras traditionally performed blessings at weddings and births due to their perceived spiritual power
- Two-spirit Native Americans often served as healers, mediators, and conveyers of oral traditions and sacred teachings in their tribes
Entertainment and Performance Roles
- Some third gender individuals worked in entertainment, such as music, dance, and theater
- In ancient Rome, some male performers were popular entertainers
- Indian hijras engaged in entertainment like music and dance in addition to their ritual roles
- The specific entertainment roles of third gender individuals varied between cultures
Social Status and Marginalization
- The specific social and economic roles of third gender people varied between cultures
- They were often marginalized or held low status in society despite any spiritual prestige
- Third gender individuals frequently faced restrictions or stigma even when accepted for religious reasons
- For example, the Mesopotamian assinnu were forbidden from having children
Acceptance of Third Gender Individuals: Ancient Cultures vs Modern Societies
Range of Attitudes in Ancient Cultures
- Ancient attitudes toward third gender people ranged from reverence and acceptance to stigma and marginalization
- Reactions were complex and shifted over time
- In Mesopotamia, the third gender priests were respected for their religious roles but also faced some stigma and restrictions
- Ancient Egyptian society accepted the sekhet priests, but there is little record of the acceptance of transgender or third gender identity in the general population
- Early Vedic texts speak positively of the tritiya-prakriti, but Indian attitudes shifted over time to become more negative
- The hijra faced discrimination despite their ritual roles
Impact of Colonization and Western Influence
- Many Native American tribes revered two-spirit individuals and considered them lucky or blessed
- European colonization led to the suppression of two-spirit identities and roles
- Western colonial influence often led to the marginalization or criminalization of indigenous third gender identities and practices
- This disrupted traditional social structures and roles
Contextual Acceptance in Ancient Greece and Rome
- In ancient Greece and Rome, cross-dressing and gender non-conformity were accepted in some religious cults and festivals but were not openly tolerated in daily life
- Same-sex relations and cross-dressing were generally more accepted in ancient cultures if they occurred within specific social scripts
- For example, relations between an older and younger man or cross-dressing in a religious context were more tolerated
- Open transgender or non-binary identity remained stigmatized in Greco-Roman society despite some ritual cross-dressing practices
Key Terms to Review (23)
Assinnu: Assinnu refers to a specific category of third-gender individuals in ancient Mesopotamia, particularly within the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures. This term is connected to the broader understanding of gender diversity in ancient civilizations, where individuals categorized as assinnu often held distinct social roles and participated in religious practices, serving as intermediaries between genders and contributing to cultural rituals.
Coming-of-age rituals: Coming-of-age rituals are ceremonies or events that mark the transition from childhood to adulthood, often involving specific rites and traditions that differ across cultures. These rituals serve to signify an individual's new social status and responsibilities within their community, often reflecting deeper cultural beliefs about gender and identity.
Cross-dressing: Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothing typically associated with the opposite gender. In many ancient civilizations, cross-dressing was often linked to cultural or religious practices and played a role in the fluidity of gender identity and expression. It reflects the complexities of gender roles in various societies, where individuals could assume different identities for a variety of reasons, including ritualistic, theatrical, or social purposes.
Gender Fluidity: Gender fluidity refers to a flexible range of gender identities that can change over time or depending on the situation, allowing individuals to express themselves beyond traditional binary gender norms. This concept connects to various cultural and societal contexts, highlighting the complexity of gender identity across different historical periods and civilizations.
Gender nonconformity: Gender nonconformity refers to behaviors, expressions, or identities that deviate from societal expectations associated with a person's assigned gender at birth. This concept highlights the fluidity of gender and emphasizes that individuals may not fit neatly into binary categories of male or female. Throughout history, various cultures have recognized and accepted different forms of gender expression, often reflected in specific roles, deities, and legal frameworks.
Georgina Born: Georgina Born is a prominent scholar known for her work on gender, sexuality, and the cultural aspects of the arts, especially in relation to performance and ethnography. Her research often examines how gender and sexual identities are constructed and represented within various cultural contexts, highlighting the intersectionality of these identities in historical narratives.
India: India is a South Asian country known for its rich history and diverse cultures, which includes ancient practices and beliefs regarding gender identity and roles. In the context of gender studies, India provides significant evidence of transgender and non-binary individuals who have been recognized and revered throughout history, as well as established third gender categories within its societies.
Initiation ceremonies: Initiation ceremonies are rites of passage that mark an individual's transition from one social or developmental stage to another, often involving rituals that symbolize acceptance into a community or group. These ceremonies can significantly impact men's health, gender identity, societal roles, and even their understanding of anatomy and physiology as they move through different life stages.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework that examines how various social identities, such as race, gender, sexuality, and class, intersect and interact to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege. This concept helps us understand that people's experiences cannot be viewed in isolation, as overlapping identities significantly shape how individuals navigate societal structures and norms.
Kulu'u: Kulu'u refers to a recognized third gender identity in some Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Islands, particularly within Hawaiian and other Polynesian societies. This term encompasses individuals who may embody both masculine and feminine traits or exist outside the traditional binary of male and female, reflecting a rich cultural understanding of gender diversity. Kulu'u plays a significant role in social and spiritual contexts, as these individuals often hold unique responsibilities and privileges within their communities.
Kurgarrū: Kurgarrū refers to a category of individuals in ancient Mesopotamia who were recognized as a third gender, often associated with a blend of male and female characteristics. These individuals occupied unique social roles and were integral to religious practices, often serving as priests or in ceremonial functions, highlighting the fluidity of gender concepts in ancient civilizations.
Mesoamerica: Mesoamerica is a historical region that extends from central Mexico to parts of Central America, characterized by its unique cultural and societal developments. This area is known for its advanced civilizations, such as the Maya and Aztec, and complex social structures that included various gender roles, including the recognition of third gender categories.
Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia, often referred to as the 'Cradle of Civilization', is a historical region located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, corresponding to modern-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey. This area is significant for its early development of urban societies, written language, and complex social structures, including roles that recognized transgender and non-binary individuals.
Natyashastra: The Natyashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on performing arts, attributed to the sage Bharata Muni, and it provides foundational principles for drama, dance, and music. It is a comprehensive text that not only discusses the techniques and aesthetics of performance but also addresses the roles and representations of various characters, including those of different gender identities. This work is significant in understanding how ancient Indian society conceptualized gender, including third gender categories.
Queer theory: Queer theory is an academic framework that challenges the traditional categories of gender and sexuality, emphasizing the fluidity and complexity of these concepts. It seeks to deconstruct norms surrounding identity, relationships, and social practices, making it essential for understanding the varied expressions of human experience across cultures and history.
Ritual specialists: Ritual specialists are individuals within a society who are designated to perform, oversee, or guide rituals and ceremonies that hold significant cultural, religious, or social importance. These specialists often possess unique knowledge or skills related to the specific practices and traditions of their community, and their roles can intersect with various gender identities, including those in third gender categories, allowing them to navigate different societal expectations.
Sekhet: Sekhet is a term from ancient Egyptian culture that refers to the concept of 'field' or 'land,' often associated with agricultural abundance and fertility. This term is connected to the broader understanding of gender and sexuality in ancient civilizations, especially in how these concepts intersected with societal roles, agriculture, and divine representation. In particular, sekhet can be seen as a space where gender dynamics played a crucial role, reflecting the importance of women in agricultural production and the celebration of fertility in both human and divine realms.
Shamans: Shamans are spiritual leaders and healers in various indigenous cultures, known for their ability to communicate with the spirit world and provide guidance, healing, and rituals. They often embody third gender categories, as their roles can transcend traditional gender norms, allowing them to occupy unique social spaces that challenge binary views of gender.
Social hierarchy: Social hierarchy refers to the arrangement of individuals or groups within a society based on various factors such as wealth, power, prestige, and social status. This structure influences relationships and interactions, shaping the dynamics of communities and cultures throughout history. In ancient societies, social hierarchy often determined access to resources, privileges, and roles within male homosocial bonds as well as third gender categories, underscoring the complexity of gender relations and social organization.
The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient Mesopotamian poem, considered one of the earliest great works of literature. It tells the story of Gilgamesh, a historical king of Uruk, and explores themes of friendship, mortality, and the human condition, reflecting the values and beliefs of ancient Mesopotamian culture and society.
Tritiya-prakriti: Tritiya-prakriti refers to a third gender category recognized in ancient Indian society, typically associated with hijras and other non-binary identities. This term embodies the complexities of gender beyond the binary framework of male and female, illustrating the diverse ways in which gender was understood and expressed in ancient cultures. The concept highlights not only social roles and identities but also spiritual and religious significance attributed to individuals identifying as tritiya-prakriti.
Two-spirit: Two-spirit is a modern, pan-Indigenous term used to describe a person who embodies both masculine and feminine qualities, often encompassing aspects of gender diversity recognized in many Indigenous cultures across North America. This term connects to the historical and contemporary recognition of gender fluidity, challenging binary notions of gender and sexuality.
Walter L. Williams: Walter L. Williams is a prominent scholar and author known for his work on the concept of third genders and sexual diversity in ancient cultures. He explores how various civilizations historically recognized and integrated individuals who did not conform to the binary gender roles, emphasizing the social and cultural significance of these roles within their societies.