2.2 Gender and labor in the 19th century
4 min read•august 13, 2024
The 19th century saw a stark divide in gender roles and labor. Men were expected to be breadwinners, working outside the home, while women were confined to domestic duties. This split was reinforced by the "" ideology.
Despite societal norms, many women, especially from poorer families, worked outside the home. They faced limited job options, lower wages, and poor conditions. Women's increasing presence in the workforce led to labor activism and gradual shifts in gender expectations.
Gendered Division of Labor in 19th-Century America
Distinct Gender Roles in Public and Private Spheres
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- In the 19th century, there was a clear division of labor based on gender, with men and women occupying distinct roles in both the public and private spheres
- The "cult of domesticity" or "" ideology reinforced the notion that women's proper place was in the home, while men belonged in the public sphere
- This ideology was rooted in the belief that men and women had inherently different natures and capabilities, with women being seen as more nurturing and emotionally suited for domestic life
Men as Breadwinners, Women as Homemakers
- Men were expected to be the primary breadwinners, working outside the home in fields such as agriculture (farming), manufacturing (factories), and commerce (business)
- Women were primarily responsible for domestic duties, including:
- Household management (cleaning, cooking)
- Child-rearing (caring for and educating children)
- Caring for the sick and elderly (nursing family members)
- Despite these societal expectations, many women, particularly from lower-income families, worked outside the home in factories (textile mills), as (maids), or in other low-wage occupations
Gender and Employment Opportunities
Gendered Access to Jobs and Wages
- Gender played a significant role in determining employment opportunities and wages in the 19th century
- Men typically had access to a wider range of occupations and higher-paying jobs compared to women
- Examples: skilled trades (carpentry, blacksmithing), professions (law, medicine), management positions
- Women's wages were consistently lower than men's, even when performing similar work, due to the belief that women's labor was less valuable and that they were not the primary breadwinners
Limited Opportunities for Women
- Women's employment opportunities were often limited to "feminine" occupations, such as:
- Teaching (one-room schoolhouses)
- Nursing (hospitals, private care)
- Domestic service (maids, cooks)
- These occupations were considered extensions of women's traditional roles and were often low-paying and less prestigious than male-dominated fields
- The concept of "pin money" suggested that women's earnings were merely supplementary to men's wages, further justifying the
Women in the Workforce
Increasing Participation and Challenges
- Despite societal expectations and limitations, women played a significant role in the 19th-century workforce
- Women's participation in the labor force increased throughout the century, particularly in the textile and garment industries (cotton mills, clothing factories), where they made up a significant portion of the workforce
- Women faced numerous challenges in the workplace, including:
- Poor (long hours, dangerous machinery)
- Low wages (often half of men's wages for the same work)
- Sexual harassment (from male supervisors and co-workers)
Women's Labor Activism
- The "Lowell System" in Massachusetts textile mills initially provided a relatively safe and respectable work environment for young, single women, but conditions deteriorated as competition increased
- emerged in response to these challenges, with organizations like the advocating for better working conditions and higher wages
- Example: , a key figure in the Lowell labor movement
- Women also played crucial roles in the abolitionist and suffrage movements (anti-slavery, women's right to vote), which were closely linked to labor rights and gender equality
Labor Movements and Gender Roles
Complex Relationship with Gender Equality
- Labor movements in the 19th century had a complex relationship with gender roles and expectations
- Some labor activists, such as the , supported equal pay for equal work and welcomed women into their ranks, challenging traditional gender norms
- However, many male-dominated unions viewed women as a threat to their jobs and wages, and actively excluded them from membership or relegated them to separate, less powerful "women's auxiliaries"
Gradual Impact on Gender Roles
- The (AFL), founded in 1886, initially excluded women and focused on organizing skilled, male workers
- Despite these obstacles, women played active roles in labor organizing and strikes, such as the 1909 "" in New York City's garment industry
- The labor movement's impact on gender roles was gradual and uneven, with progress towards gender equality in the workplace being slow and incremental throughout the 19th century
- The fight for women's rights in the workplace continued into the 20th century, with landmark events such as the (1911) and the passage of the (1920) granting women the right to vote
Key Terms to Review (16)
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the legal right to vote, marking a significant victory for the women's suffrage movement. This amendment transformed the political landscape by breaking down barriers that kept women from participating in the democratic process and challenged the prevailing separate spheres ideology that confined women to domestic roles.
American Federation of Labor: The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States, founded in 1886, that focused on securing better wages, working conditions, and hours for skilled workers. It played a crucial role in the labor movement by advocating for the rights of workers and emphasizing the importance of organized labor during a time when many workers faced exploitation and poor working conditions.
Cult of domesticity: The cult of domesticity was a prevailing value system in the 19th century that emphasized women's roles as wives and mothers, promoting the idea that women's primary responsibilities were to maintain the home and care for their families. This ideology reinforced the separation of gender roles, positioning men as breadwinners and women as moral guardians of the home. The cult of domesticity played a significant role in shaping societal expectations around gender, labor, and family dynamics during this period.
Domestic Servants: Domestic servants were individuals employed to perform household tasks such as cleaning, cooking, and caregiving in private homes. This role was predominantly filled by women, especially during the 19th century, reflecting societal norms about gender and labor, as well as class distinctions within society.
Exploitation: Exploitation refers to the unfair treatment of individuals, especially in labor contexts, where one party benefits at the expense of another. In the 19th century, this often involved workers—particularly women and children—being subjected to long hours, low wages, and poor working conditions, all while their labor was crucial to the growth of industries. This practice not only highlighted economic inequalities but also revealed the social dynamics tied to gender roles within the workforce.
Gender wage gap: The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between women and men, often expressed as a percentage of men's earnings. This disparity can be attributed to various factors, including occupational segregation, discrimination, and differences in work experience and hours worked. Understanding the gender wage gap sheds light on the economic inequalities faced by women, particularly in historical contexts such as the labor landscape of the 19th century.
Knights of Labor: The Knights of Labor was a significant labor organization founded in 1869 that aimed to unite all workers across different trades and industries to advocate for better working conditions, fair wages, and the rights of laborers. This organization sought to include women, African Americans, and immigrants, breaking the boundaries of class and race, and played a crucial role in the labor movement during the late 19th century, particularly in the context of gender and labor dynamics.
Labor force participation rate: The labor force participation rate is the percentage of the working-age population that is either employed or actively seeking employment. This measure reflects how engaged individuals are in the labor market and is significant in understanding economic conditions and gender dynamics, particularly during the 19th century when industrialization began to reshape job opportunities for men and women.
Lowell Female Labor Reform Association: The Lowell Female Labor Reform Association was an early labor organization founded in 1844 by female textile workers in Lowell, Massachusetts. This association aimed to advocate for better working conditions, fair wages, and reduced working hours for women employed in the textile mills. It is a crucial part of understanding the intersection of gender and labor in the 19th century, highlighting women's activism and the fight for rights in a predominantly male-dominated workforce.
Sarah Bagley: Sarah Bagley was a prominent American labor reformer and activist in the mid-19th century, best known for her role in advocating for the rights of female textile workers in Lowell, Massachusetts. She founded the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association and was a key figure in the movement that sought to improve working conditions, reduce working hours, and raise wages for women employed in the textile mills. Bagley's activism highlighted the intersection of gender and labor, showcasing the struggles of women in a rapidly industrializing society.
Separate Spheres: Separate spheres is a 19th-century ideology that delineated the roles of men and women into distinct domains, with men associated with public life and work, while women were linked to the private realm of home and family. This framework reinforced societal expectations, promoting the idea that men should be breadwinners and women should be caregivers, which shaped gender dynamics throughout history.
Textile Workers: Textile workers were individuals employed in the production of fabric and textiles, primarily during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. This labor force was predominantly composed of women and children, who worked long hours in often hazardous conditions in factories known as textile mills. Their contributions were crucial to the rapid expansion of the textile industry, which played a significant role in transforming the economy and social structures of the time.
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire was a catastrophic industrial disaster that occurred on March 25, 1911, in New York City, resulting in the deaths of 146 garment workers, most of whom were young immigrant women. This tragic event highlighted the hazardous working conditions in factories and became a catalyst for labor reform and improved workplace safety regulations. The fire brought national attention to the exploitation of labor, particularly women workers, and played a pivotal role in shaping labor rights movements in the early 20th century.
Uprising of the 20,000: The Uprising of the 20,000 refers to a significant labor strike that took place in New York City in 1909, where around 20,000 female garment workers protested for better working conditions, higher wages, and shorter hours. This event highlighted the struggles of women in the labor force during the early 20th century and marked a pivotal moment in the fight for labor rights, particularly among women who were often subjected to exploitative conditions.
Women's labor activism: Women's labor activism refers to the organized efforts by women to advocate for their rights and improve working conditions in the labor force, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This activism was crucial in challenging gender discrimination, advocating for better wages, and pushing for labor reforms. It connected with broader movements for social justice and women's rights, highlighting the unique struggles women faced in the workforce.
Working Conditions: Working conditions refer to the environment and circumstances under which employees perform their jobs, including factors such as safety, hours, wages, and overall worker rights. In the 19th century, working conditions were often poor, especially in factories, where long hours and hazardous environments were common. These conditions played a significant role in shaping labor movements and gender dynamics, as women and men navigated their roles in an increasingly industrialized society.